Spanish Vocabulary: An Etymological Approach

Citation preview

Spanish Vocabulary

T4311.indb i

8/31/07 6:42:31 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

David Brodsky

SPANISH Vocabulary An Etymological Approach

University of Texas Press

T4311.indb iii

Austin

8/31/07 6:42:33 AM

Copyright ©  by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition,  Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Permissions, University of Texas Press, P.O. Box , Austin, TX - www.utexas.edu/utpress/about/bpermission.html The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z.- (R) (Permanence of Paper). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brodsky, David. Spanish vocabulary : an etymological approach / by David Brodsky. — st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN ---- (cl. : alk. paper) — ISBN ---- (pbk. : alk. paper) . Spanish language—Vocabulary. . Spanish language—Textbooks for foreign speakers—English. . Spanish language—Etymology. I. Title. PC.B  .'—dc 

T4311.indb iv

8/31/07 6:42:33 AM

Contents

Preface vii Abbreviations and Symbols

ix

Simplified Gender Rule xii Introduction  PA R T I . B A C K G R O U N D

.. Spanish as a Romance Language  .. “Learned” versus “Popular” Words  .. Latin: A Few Useful Tools  PA R T I I . C L A S S I C A L V O C A B U L A R Y

.. “Learned” Latin Words  .. “Learned” Greek Words  PA R T I I I . P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

.. Addition of “Helping” e : esnob  snob  .. Initial f S h: higo  fig



.. Vowel Changes: e S ie, o S ue, etc.  .. Basic Consonant Changes: p/b, t/d, c/g  .. Other Distinctive Consonants (or Lack Thereof)



PA R T I V. S E L E C T E D T O P I C S

.. Goths and Other Germans .. Arabs and Muslims





.. Numbers and Quantities 

T4311.indb v

8/31/07 6:42:34 AM

vi

CO N T E N T S

.. Time



.. Ser and Estar  .. Food and Animals .. Religion





.. The Family



.. Body, Spirit, and Mind  .. Romance (Languages) and Politics



ANNEXES. ADDITIONAL WORDS

A. Principal Exceptions to the “Simplified Gender Rule”  B.  Not-So-Easy Words  C. Verbs Ending in -cer and Related Words D. , Relatively Easy Words





Selected References 

T4311.indb vi

8/31/07 6:42:34 AM

Preface

This book is intended for students at all levels who seek to enhance their Spanish vocabulary, as well as for those who wish simply to explore the wideranging connections between Spanish and English vocabulary. The approach differs markedly from that of “traditional” Spanish vocabulary books that present lists of words with English definitions, grouped by subject areas. While such lists can be useful for reviewing and maintaining vocabulary, they often are of far less value to students seeking to acquire new vocabulary, or at least to those not blessed with photographic memories. Spanish Vocabulary: An Etymological Approach offers elements rarely found in a work addressed to a nonspecialist audience, including: . etymological connections between Spanish and English vocabulary . historical and linguistic information on the origin and evolution of Spanish . comparative references to developments in other Romance languages (and English)

A multifaceted approach is employed, ranging from presenting words in a historical context to developing an understanding of the “shape” or “feel” of Spanish. While extensive use of lists is also made, there is a crucial difference: in the large majority of cases, Spanish words are associated explicitly with related English words, an association that can greatly facilitate learning and retaining these words. As an example, the correspondence amable (Spanish)—amiable (English) can be used as the basis for learning a number of other Spanish words:

T4311.indb vii

Spanish

Definition

[Other Cognate]

amable —amabilidad —amistad —amistoso —amor —amoroso —amar —amante —enamorar

amiable, kind —amiability, kindness —friendship, amity —friendly, amicable —love —amorous, loving —(to) love —loving, lover —(to) enamor

[paramour]

8/31/07 6:42:34 AM

viii

P R E FA C E

—enamorado, enamorada

—in love, enamored, lover, inamorato, inamorata

The presentation is divided into four parts, plus four annexes. The book can be studied sequentially or “à la carte” (Spanish a la carta). It is in fact recommended that one move back and forth between the sections to provide a greater element of variety. Part I provides general background material on the origins of Spanish and begins the process of presenting Spanish vocabulary. Part II presents “classical” Spanish vocabulary, that is, words whose form (in both Spanish and English) is nearly unchanged from Latin and Greek. Part III deals with “popular” Spanish vocabulary, or words that during the evolution from Latin to Spanish underwent significant change in form (and often in meaning as well). A number of “patterns” are set out that can help one to recognize and remember new vocabulary. Part IV treats in a more discursive manner various themes, including Germanic and Arabic words, numbers, time, food and animals, the family, the body, and politics. The annexes present additional words in list form: Annex A: Principal Exceptions to the “Simplified Gender Rule” Annex B:  Not-So-Easy Words (whose relations, if any, to English words are not immediately obvious) Annex C: Verbs Ending in -cer and Related Words Annex D: , Relatively Easy Words (with English correspondences)

T4311.indb viii

8/31/07 6:42:34 AM

Abbreviations and Symbols

acc. adj. adv. AHCD Amer. Arab. arch. astron. biol. bot. cap. Cat. cf. chem. CL conj. def. dim. DRAE eccl. elec. Eng. esp. fam. f. fig. Fr. freq. gen. genit. geog. geol. geom. Germ.

T4311.indb ix

accusative adjective adverb American Heritage College Dictionary American Spanish (not necessarily all countries); or indigenous language Arabic architecture astronomy biology/zoology botany capitalized Catalan compare (from Latin confer) chemistry Classical Latin conjunction definition diminutive Diccionario de la lengua española of the Real Academia Española ecclesiastical electricity English especially familiar, colloquial feminine figuratively; figurative French frequently generally genitive (possessive case) geography geology geometry Germanic

8/31/07 6:42:35 AM

x

A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D S Y M B O L S

gram. Gk. incl. inf. It. Lat. lit. m. m./f. math. med. mil. Mod.Fr. Mod.Sp. n. neg. n.f. n.m. n.m./f. nom. obs. OED OldEng. OldFr. OldSp. onom. orig. part. pert. pl. Port. p.p. prep. pres. RAE sing. s.o. Sp.

grammar Greek including infinitive Italian Latin literally masculine masculine/feminine mathematics medicine military Modern French Modern Spanish noun negative feminine noun masculine noun noun both masculine and feminine nominative obsolete or archaic Oxford English Dictionary Old English Old French Old Spanish onomatopoeia originally participle pertaining plural Portuguese past participle  preposition present Real Academia Española (see also DRAE) singular someone Spanish

 Used generally in cases where the defi nition corresponding to the past participle is not presented among the accompanying list of defi nitions.

T4311.indb x

8/31/07 6:42:35 AM

A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D S Y M B O L S

UK vb. VL w/out

United Kingdom verb Vulgar Latin without

    †

is similar in meaning to (always refers to two Spanish words) is derived from (e.g., soprano  It., sport < disport) is equal to is not equal to indicates that an English word used as a cognate is “obsolete” or “archaic” 

xi

 In general, this applies to words that either: (a) are listed as “obsolete” or “archaic” in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged or (b) are not found there but appear in the Oxford English Dictionary. The term rare is used to mark other cognates that, while perhaps not technically obsolete or archaic, are not normally found in “smaller” dictionaries (e.g., American Heritage College Dictionary).

T4311.indb xi

8/31/07 6:42:35 AM

Simplified Gender Rule

Both to streamline the presentation and to serve as a learning tool, the text will employ the following “Simplified Gender Rule” that “predicts” the correct gender for more than  percent of all Spanish nouns. . Nouns having one of the following endings are assumed to be feminine: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

-a -ión -d -umbre -ie -ez -triz -sis / -tis (Greek words)

. Nouns ending in -ista are assumed to be both masculine and feminine. . All other nouns are assumed to be masculine. ONLY NOUNS WHOSE GENDER IS “UNPREDICTABLE” WILL BE EXPLICITLY MARKED. Thus: rosa tema (m.) libro mano (f.) nación avión (m.) corazón razón (f.) periodista evangelista (m.)

rose theme book hand nation airplane heart reason journalist Evangelist (author of one of the four NT gospels)

Annex A examines in more detail the accuracy of this “rule” and lists some of the principal exceptions.

T4311.indb xii

8/31/07 6:42:35 AM

SIMPLIFIED GENDER RULE

xiii

In general, Spanish is quite flexible in forming feminine nouns from masculine ones by: (a) changing the final -o to -a (b) adding -a to a noun or adjective ending in -or, -án, -ín, -ón (c) adding -a to a national or regional identifier ending in a consonant For (b) and (c), the final-syllable written accent, if any, disappears in the feminine.

(a) (b)

(c)

Masculine

Feminine

English

gato chico director holgazán bailarín ladrón español francés

gata chica directora holgazana bailarina ladrona española francesa

cat boy, girl director lazy, loafer dancing, dancer thieving, thief Spanish, Spaniard French, Frenchman /Frenchwoman

To simplify the presentation, masculine forms only will generally be shown for nouns and adjectives that follow these patterns, except in cases where there is a change in written accent, or where English has a distinct female form. Examples: ladrón (-ona) ciervo, cierva

thieving, thief or larcenist deer, stag, doe

For “people” nouns not having one of the above endings, the masculine and feminine forms are generally identical. This will frequently be highlighted by using the abbreviation m./f. Thus: atleta (m./f.) cómplice (m./f.) estudiante (m./f.)

athlete accomplis student

Finally, there are a very small number of “object” nouns that can be either masculine or feminine, with no change in meaning. These will also be marked with m./f. For example: maratón (m./f.) tizne (m./f.)

T4311.indb xiii

marathon soot

8/31/07 6:42:35 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Spanish Vocabulary

T4311.indb xv

8/31/07 6:42:36 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Introduction

An English speaker learning Spanish starts with one huge, though generally underutilized, advantage: he or she is already speaking a Romance language, and with a little bit of help, can easily recognize and learn to use a very large number of Spanish words. The “romance” of English may come as a surprise to those who have been taught that English is a Germanic language. Nonetheless, in terms of its vocabulary, English is overwhelmingly Latinate; in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, for example, there are more than twice as many LatinRomance words as Germanic ones. Of course, one does not learn words in a foreign language simply by noting their similarities with English words; rather, the basic familiarity that exists (or that with a little practice can be seen to exist) can help one to remember new words and to recognize them the next time they are encountered and, after a while, to be able to begin using them naturally (in both speaking and writing). Consider the following seven words: Spanish

English

hecho dicho pecho estrecho derecho techo leche

fact saying, proverb chest narrow right, straight roof milk

If you haven’t studied much Spanish already, chances are that the Spanish words are not instantly recognizable. What you would normally do is look them up in the dictionary and, probably, not remember their definitions (certainly not all of them) the next time you see them. This is the list (or “telephone book”) approach to learning vocabulary.

 In terms of frequency of usage, Germanic words dominate; in terms of simple word numbers, Latin and Romance ones do. The issue of English as a “Germanic” versus “Romance” language will be revisited in Section ..

T4311.indb 1

8/31/07 6:42:36 AM



INTRODUCTION

There is an alternative approach: Spanish

Latin

Similar English Word

hecho dicho pecho estrecho derecho techo leche

factum dictum pectus strictus directus tectum lactem

fact dictum, edict pectoral strict direct, rectum (pro)tect lactose

where the middle column represents the common Latin origin of the corresponding Spanish and English words. Several points can immediately be noted: (a) in each case, Spanish has changed Latin CT to ch; (b) in several cases, the vowel has changed; (c) the final Latin UM or US has become Spanish o, while the final EM in LACTEM has become e; (d) an initial e has been added to estrecho; (e) the F in FACTUM has been converted into a silent h in Spanish.

Each of these characteristics is in fact a very frequent occurrence in Spanish, as we will see in Part III. We note also that the English equivalents of the Latin roots do not always have the identical meaning of the corresponding Spanish word, but in all cases they are at least suggestive and, more importantly, easy to remember. We may not know too much about lactose, but most of us know that it is in milk and that some people have problems digesting it (hence lactose-free milk in the supermarkets). Similarly, “narrow” and “strict” are not perfect synonyms, but they do have overlapping meanings, since a “strict interpretation” is a “narrow” one. And how about derecho, and what is its possible connection with rectum? Latin directus meant “in a straight line”, hence “direct”, and is the origin of Spanish derecho meaning “right”, both in terms of direction (“directly ahead”, “the right-hand one”) and “law”. rectus, “straight”, leads to rectum intestinum, the “straight intestine”, shortened in English and Spanish to rectum and recto, respectively. Finally, techo is easily remembered because it (pro)tects us from the elements.



The same lac(t)- appears in galactic and galaxy (from Greek), the inspiration for the Milky Way (a translation of Latin via lactea).

T4311.indb 2

8/31/07 6:42:36 AM

INTRODUCTION



Apart from being an effective learning tool, this alternative to the “telephone book” approach can help convert vocabulary learning from an essentially painful process with no immediate reward to an enjoyable one with both immediate and longer-term benefits: (a) It provides valuable insights into the history of both the Spanish language and the Spanish-speaking peoples. (b) It provides an opportunity to deepen one’s understanding of English (e.g., how many people are aware that the English word check comes— via Persian, Arabic, Spanish, and French—from the Shah of Iran?). (c) It enables one to enlarge one’s English vocabulary. For example, all of the following words (some rather obscure) found in the American Heritage College Dictionary are closely related—and, in a number of cases, identical in form—to reasonably common Spanish words: acequia acicula alcalde bodega burnoose cespitose cicatrix comestible consuetudinary cuirass estival finca fovea

frijol grisaille horologe lanose paries, parietal manus matutinal muliebrity non obstante playa seta stupefacient supervene

(d) It will make learning a second Romance language (French, Italian, Portuguese, Catalan ) far easier; conversely, any preexisting knowledge of one of these languages can immediately be applied to the learning of Spanish.

Returning to our example above, let us consider in more detail STRICTUS

S

estrecho



Or Romanian, Rhaeto-Romance (one of Switzerland’s four national languages), Occitan (also known as Provençal), Galician (northwest Spain), or Sardinian.

T4311.indb 3

8/31/07 6:42:37 AM



INTRODUCTION

to illustrate how, with a little effort, learning one word can be the key to learning a large number of others. strictus is the past participle of the Latin verb stringere (“to bind tightly”, “to tighten”), which gave rise (via Old French) to English strain, restrain, constrain, as well as to the more “classical” forms strict, restrict, constrict, restriction, etc. A similar process occurred in Spanish, giving these correspondences: Spanish

English

restringir restricción restrictivo

(to) restrict, (to) restrain restriction restrictive

constreñir constricción constreñimiento constrictivo constrictor

(to) constrain, (to) constrict constriction constraint, constriction constrictive constrictor (e.g., boa)

astringir astringente

(to) astringe astringent

estricto estrictamente estrechez estrechar

strict strictly straitness (narrowness), (dire) straits (to) straiten (make narrow)

This last word is used most commonly in the expression estrechar la mano (“to shake hands”). Estrecho is also used as a noun in the sense of the “narrow” part of a river, i.e., English strait, with which it shares a common origin: el estrecho de Gibraltar

the Strait of Gibraltar

It is often the case that one can trace a Spanish word through French to find one or more relatives in English. Thus, strait arrived in English via Old French estreit, which meant “narrow”, while Old French for “strait” was destreit. In later French this became détroit, which of course explains the origin of the name of the “Motor City”. In the fifteenth century, Latin districtus (dis  strictus) gave rise to French district, initially the exercise of justice (“restraint”) in a certain area, then the territory itself, which was marked off for a special administrative purpose. It subsequently entered Spanish (sixteenth century) and English (seventeenth century) with this latter definition. Thus,

T4311.indb 4

8/31/07 6:42:37 AM

INTRODUCTION

distrito



district

districtia, a “popular” Latin word derived from districtus, had earlier given rise via Old French destrece to English distress: “the sore pressure or strain of adversity” (OED). A newspaper headline like DETROIT DISTRICT IN DISTRESS!!!

can therefore be seen, etymologically at least, as being (multiply) redundant. Old French estrece (from popular Latin strictia) was the source of English stress (fourteenth century), and six centuries later this was reexported to Spanish: estrés

stress

Finally, the Spanish verb that corresponds directly to Latin stringere is estreñir, cognate with English strain. It applies to a particular type of “strain” or “constriction”, that which takes place in the intestines: estreñir estreñimiento estreñido

(to) constipate constipation constipated

This, of course, raises the question of what constipado means in Spanish. Like English constipated, it comes from the Latin verb stipare (“to crowd together”, “to compress”). However, in Spanish the compression generally refers to an altogether different part of the body: constipar constipado

(to) catch cold suffering from a cold, a cold

so that a Spanish speaker suffering from a cold is likely to receive an altogether different remedy from an English-speaking pharmacist than from a Spanishspeaking one. Thus, without a great deal of effort, we have extended our initial equivalence estrecho  “strict” to a score of additional Spanish words, and have at the same time cast new light on several English words. We can see from the above examples that words that share a common Latin origin often evolve along different paths, in both form and meaning. This is in fact one of the principal ways that languages “evolve” and eventually break up  English constipation was not always restricted to the intestinal variety: until the eighteenth century, constipate could also mean “to make fi rm and compact by pressing together”, “to condense or thicken liquids”, “to close the pores”. Many Spanish speakers, particularly in the Americas, use resfrío or resfriado for “cold”.

T4311.indb 5

8/31/07 6:42:37 AM



INTRODUCTION

into different languages. Taking English as an example, we know that nearly every word has a minimum of two definitions, and in many cases substantially more. Suppose that when we meet, I use only odd-numbered definitions and you use only even-numbered ones. Will we understand each other? Probably not, or if so, only with great difficulty. Suppose now that I alter the form of my words in reasonably systematic ways, say replacing ct with ch, cul by j, t by d whenever it occurs between vowels, etc., and you make a series of similar but different changes. We will now have created languages as far apart as Spanish and Italian—in fact, all of the changes mentioned above occurred during the evolution of Latin to Spanish.

False Friends Nearly every student of a foreign language has been warned about the perils of “false friends” (falsos amigos, faux amis, falsi amici, falsche Freunde, etc.), which seem to bear a relation to a word in English but actually do not. Lesson of the story: never assume that you can figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word from its form alone. In Spanish, for example, the following appear in nearly every such list of “false friends”: Spanish

Meaning

False English Friend

actual arena largo

“present, current” “sand” “long”

actual arena large

Much as the “exception proves the rule”, false friends often turn out to be great aids in learning new vocabulary. In the majority of cases, they have an important story to tell, which is generally that one language has chosen to focus on, let us say, the even-numbered definitions, and the other, on the odd-numbered ones. First, consider Spanish arena. Everyone knows that an arena is a sports stadium, so where in the world did the Spanish come up with arena for “sand”?  The explanation is very simple: the original Latin meaning of arena was not “stadium” but “sand”. Sand was frequently used to cover the ground in coliseums and other sporting venues, the better to absorb the blood of gladiators. arena (“the sand”) then became a shorthand term for the stadium in which gladiators performed. sabulum, which originally meant “sand of a somewhat

 Spanish arena can also mean “arena”, either as a classical site for gladiator combat or in the more “modern” sense of a site for bullfighting.

T4311.indb 6

8/31/07 6:42:38 AM

INTRODUCTION



coarser variety”, then came to replace arena in the generic sense of “sand”. sabulum evolved into French (sable) and Italian (sabbia) for “sand”, while Spanish maintained the older term arena in its original sense, limiting sábulo to the meaning “coarse sand”. This is by no means a rare occurrence: due to the early colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (before France and much of northern Italy) and its relative isolation, Spanish and Portuguese have in many cases maintained meanings of Latin words and expressions that were subsequently dropped in regions closer to Rome. How is it that Spanish actual has a meaning in terms of time (“now”), while in English it means “existing and not merely potential or possible”? If one actually looks in the dictionary, one will see that there is another definition of English actual: Being, existing, or acting at the present moment; current (AHCD).

Similarly, in Spanish there is also a second definition: Real, por oposición a “potencial” (Moliner). “Real, as opposed to ‘potential.’ ”

So both Spanish and English actual do share common meanings, but English has chosen to emphasize one, Spanish another. From this (not-so-) false friend, one can immediately establish a number of very real correspondences derived from the Latin verb agere (“to drive”, “to do”) and its past participle actus, all of which (actually) do correspond in meaning: Spanish

English

Spanish

English

acto actor actriz acción —acciones actividad activista activo —activos

act actor actress action —shares/stocks activity activist active —assets

activar actuario agenda agente agencia reacción reaccionar reaccionario reactor

(to) activate actuary agenda agent agency reaction (to) react reactionary reactor

 The original sense of Latin arena survives in the English adjective arenaceous (“resembling, derived from, or containing sand”).

T4311.indb 7

8/31/07 6:42:38 AM



INTRODUCTION

Finally, Spanish largo means “long” rather than “large”. For those who know French, the potential for confusion is even greater, since French large means “wide”. In fact, all of these definitions are geometric applications of the common theme expressed by Latin largus—“abundant, copious, bountiful, profuse”—and preserved in English largesse. Spanish has focused on length, French on width, and English on overall size. Spanish largo and related words also maintain some of the elements of the original definition, as is the case in English. una larga cosecha largueza largamente alargar

an abundant (large) harvest generosity, largesse (or largess) at length, largely, generously (to) lengthen, (to) increase (make larger)

Etymological Correspondences with English Words Throughout the book, the large majority of Spanish words—or word families— are associated with corresponding English words, which can be used as an aid in learning, and remembering, the Spanish. Frequently, the corresponding English word is part of the definition of the Spanish, e.g., abrupto creíble

steep, craggy, abrupt credible

Where the English cognate does not form part of the definition, it is shown in brackets: agua pecado

water sin

[aquatic] [peccadillo]

In the vast majority of cases, the English cognate can be found in the mediumsized American Heritage College Dictionary. In some sections, the English correspondences are systematically highlighted in italics; in other sections, particularly where the large majority of words correspond to English words (e.g., Sections . and . and Annex D), italics are used only when the correspondence is not obvious (especially when the word in question is not the first element of the definition) or to highlight the etymological relationship.



T4311.indb 8

“Liberality in bestowing gifts . . . Money or gifts bestowed . . . Generosity.”

8/31/07 6:42:38 AM

INTRODUCTION



Latin Roots In a number of cases, the Latin root of the Spanish word is given, e.g., capra terra

cabra tierra terraza

goat earth, land, soil terrace

[Capricorn]

The reason for this is not to teach Latin, but rather that the Latin root can help illustrate the connection between the Spanish word and a related English one; in many cases the root itself is easily recognizable. Each Latin noun (or adjective) had up to six different singular forms, depending on the manner in which it was used in the sentence (subject, direct object, etc.). We have generally shown the nominative (subject) form—the one found in dictionaries—but have not hesitated to use another form when it is more suitable for our purposes. In a number of cases, the form shown comes from Medieval Latin or Vulgar Latin (rather than Classical Latin), when it is from one of these two sources that the corresponding Spanish word derives.

Definitions The brief definitions presented in the text are meant to be suggestive only and are in no manner a substitute for more complete definitions to be found in a suitable dictionary. The definitions are at least theoretically “standard”, in the sense that the large majority should be familiar to most native speakers of Spanish. But one should bear in mind that regional differences in Spanish vocabulary are substantially greater than those that exist in the English-speaking world, and a word (or definition) used in one country (or region) is often unknown in another. Even more troublesome, a word that is perfectly “normal” and acceptable in some countries may not be appropriate for public use in others.

 The adjectives actually had eighteen potentially different singular forms—six each for the masculine, feminine, and neuter.  Specifically, for the so-called third declension, the accusative form is frequently shown for words having two different “stems” (e.g., frons—frontem, “front”). For the large group of nouns whose nominatives end in -o with accusatives ending in -onem (e.g., natio—nationem), a “mixed” form is shown: natio(n).  Two examples of this are coger (“to take”, “to catch”) and concha (“shell”), which in Spain and a number of other countries are perfectly normal words, but in others represent the height of sexual vulgarity.

T4311.indb 9

8/31/07 6:42:39 AM



INTRODUCTION

A very large number of words can be used as both adjectives and nouns, e.g., plano

level (adj.), flat (adj.), smooth (adj.), plane (adj.), plane (n.), map or plan (n.) square (adj.), square (n.)

cuadrado

To simplify the presentation, the parts of speech will generally not be explicitly noted. Adjective definitions (if any) will precede noun ones, and the reader can be guided by the corresponding use of the words in English. Thus: plano (adj. & n.) cuadrado (adj. & n.) precedente

level, flat, smooth, plane, map or plan square preceding, precedent

Spanish adjectives are very frequently used as “person” nouns . In some cases, both adjective and noun meanings will be provided, but often only the adjective sense will be shown. Thus, ciego

blind

rather than ciego (adj. & n.) blind, blind man, blind woman

In a number of cases, a specific definition applies only when the word is used as a plural, e.g., las economías (“savings”). This is indicated as follows: economía

economy, economics, savings (pl.)

In other cases, a noun is used only in the plural, e.g., las finanzas (“the finances”): finanzas (pl.)

finances, finance

Sometimes there are two (or more) common spellings of a word, but one is “preferred” by the RAE. This is generally shown in the following manner chovinismo / chauvinismo

chauvinism

where the first spelling is the preferred one. When different spellings seem to be equally acceptable, they are separated by a comma: vídeo, video

video, VCR

On occasions, synonyms are explicitly indicated by the symbol  : confort

comfort ( comodidad)

Confort and comodidad are thus synonyms. The symbol  is used to indicate the provenance of a word, particularly when its form (or meaning) appears “un-Spanish”. Thus for bate, bate ( Eng.)

T4311.indb 10

baseball bat

8/31/07 6:42:39 AM

INTRODUCTION



Many verbs can be used pronominally (or reflexively), often with a somewhat different meaning than when used “normally”: “normal” pronominal

Levanto la mano. Me levanto a las seis.

I raise my hand. I get up at six (from the bed).

The definitions presented do not explicitly distinguish between pronominal and regular uses. Thus: levantar (to) raise, (to) lift, (to) get up (from bed, etc.)

The pronominal form of the infinitive is given when, in common use, the verb is used only in a pronominal sense, e.g., arrepentir(se)

(to) repent

Expressions For a relatively small number of words, one or more common expressions are also provided, e.g., estrechar estrechar la mano

(to) narrow, (to) tighten (to) shake hands

Dictionaries and Alphabets In deciding on a suitable dictionary, it is useful to keep in mind the very important differences between pre- and post- Spanish dictionaries. Post- dictionaries use virtually the same alphabetical ordering as English dictionaries—the only difference being the inclusion of an additional letter, ñ. For pre dictionaries, the situation is altogether different. The reasons for this are related to the following not-so-trivial question: How many letters are there in the Spanish alphabet?

There is in fact considerable confusion both about the total number of letters (generally cited as either twenty-eight or twenty-nine) and which specific ones



In general, the smaller a dictionary is, the more likely that all of the defi nitions for a given verb will involve pronominal uses, and hence the more likely it is that the verb will be shown in its pronominal form. For example, most dictionaries show abstener (“to abstain”) and atener (“to keep to”) in their pronominal forms (abstenerse and atenerse), whereas the more complete dictionaries of the RAE and Moliner show them in their “normal” forms.

T4311.indb 11

8/31/07 6:42:39 AM



INTRODUCTION

are to be included. In particular, many dictionaries and grammar books defi ne rr as a separate letter and exclude w and/or k, on the grounds that they are used only in words of foreign origin. Others state that ch and ll, previously treated as separate letters, no longer qualify for such special treatment. The actual situation, at least according to the Real Academia Española (RAE), is as follows: there are twenty-nine letters in the Spanish alphabet (el alfabeto or el abecedario), made up of the twenty-six “English” letters (including both k and w), plus: ch, ll, and ñ. The combination rr is not considered to be a separate letter. Prior to , Spanish words were alphabetized treating ch, ll, and ñ as the fully independent letters that they were. In all dictionaries published before that date (and unfortunately in many later ones, particularly “new” editions of older dictionaries), not only are words beginning with ch, ll, and ñ grouped separately, but within entries for other letters this same process takes place. In , under pressure from the various American academies of Spanish, the Tenth Congress of the Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española adopted the Solomonic compromise that while continuing to exercise all other rights as free and independent letters, for the purposes of alphabetization only, ch and ll would be treated as a normal combination of letters. The letter ñ continues to be treated separately for alphabetization, thus representing a further victory in its campaign for survival. The situation can be illustrated by means of the following example: Pre- Word Order

Post- Word Order

cantina cañón cuyo chico chicha luz lluvia nunca ñato

cantina cañón chicha chico cuyo lluvia luz nunca ñato

The principal reason for considering ch and ll to be single letters is that their pronunciation is always that of a single sound (rather than two separate ones).  The RAE performs an oversight role for Spanish similar to that exercised by the Académie française for French.  In the interests of “standardization” of printing, the European Union had tried to convince Spain in the early s to eliminate ñ (replacing it with gn or another such combination), thus inciting a near revolt among the Spaniards.

T4311.indb 12

8/31/07 6:42:39 AM

INTRODUCTION



The same also holds for the letter combination rr, which is presumably why many sources classify it as a separate letter. Shifting from an “English” alphabetization to a pre- “Spanish” one, particularly when using a bilingual dictionary, can be quite a challenge and one that most prefer to avoid whenever possible.

Word Origins and Trivial Pursuits Many times a word presents difficulties because it seems to embody concepts that are completely unrelated. For example, if one looks up the Spanish word moral in the dictionary, one is likely to find the following definitions: moral

adj. moral; f. ethics, morals; morale; m. black mulberry tree

How is a black mulberry tree moral? Perhaps a moral person is one who eats black mulberries? In this case, as in many others, the explanation lies in the fact that two (or more) separate words have become homonyms, each having its own English correspondent. The presentation in the text seeks to shed light on such potential conundrums. Thus: mora () —moral () —morado —mora () —moral () (adj. & n.f.) —moraleja —moralidad

mulberry (fruit), blackberry —black mulberry (tree) —violet or mulberry (color) —delay (esp. in payment, mora (poetry) —moral (adj.), ethics, morals, morale —moral (of a story) —morality

(unrelated) (unrelated)

Throughout the text, information on word origins is frequently provided in order to facilitate the association of a Spanish word with a particular English one. Much of this material is provided in the footnotes, particularly in those sections where a “list” approach is followed. Apart from their pedagogical value, some (if not all) readers may find them of interest in their own right. In particular, the diligent student will discover the answers to the following questions, among others: . . . .

What is the difference between a slave and a Slav? [.] Why is colonel pronounced with an r? [.] How did Joan of Arc refer to the English? [.] What is the difference between scarlet, crimson, carmine, and vermilion? [.] . How is an apricot precocious? [.]

T4311.indb 13

8/31/07 6:42:40 AM



INTRODUCTION

. What did algebraists do before they began to solve equations? [.] . What is the meaning of the expression below the pyramid on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill? [.] . Today is Monday the tenth. My cousin is arriving in ocho días. She is left-handed. On what day of the week will my cousin arrive? [.] . How many days are there in a Spanish fortnight? [.] . How do you say “royal peacock” in Spanish? [.] . What do you call a “turkey” in Turkey? [.] . In what respect can it be said that despondency is an inherent element of a Spanish marriage? [.] . What is the role of a ship’s husband? [.] . What is a Spanish flea killer called? [.] . What was the official title of Charles II’s royal diver? [.] . Should pencils and vanilla ice cream be X-rated? [.] . What is the inherent relationship between baldness and chauvinism? [.] . What is the meaning of the expression above the mysterious eye on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill? [Annex B] . What is the connection between starboard and the stars? [Annex B] . Why do doctors call a kidney stone a calculus? [Annex D] . What is the relation between an American hoosegow and a Spanish judge? [Annex D] . What was the modus operandi of a Roman plagiarist? [Annex D]

The section of the text in which the answer can be found is shown in brackets.

T4311.indb 14

8/31/07 6:42:40 AM

PA R T I

B AC KG R O U N D

T4311.indb 15

8/31/07 6:42:40 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

S E C T I O N  .

Spanish as a Romance Language

If Cicero (or Caesar) were to come back to life and try to speak Spanish (or any other Romance language), he would very quickly come to the conclusion that the barbarians had taken over and “pidginized” his language. In terms of grammar, the structure of the language would have changed almost beyond recognition. Only about half of the vocabulary—what we easily recognize to be “classical” Latin and Greek  words in English—would be familiar, and the pronunciation would often seem very strange, his own name in particular (which he pronounced as if it were spelled kikero). The other half would strike him as either “gutter” Latin spoken by the uneducated or words of totally unfamiliar origin. John and Jane Doe, native English speakers of the twenty-first century, should find it far easier to learn Spanish. The differences between Spanish and English grammar are relatively minor—certainly in comparison with the vast difference between the grammar of either one and Latin. And, with a bit of effort, they will recognize that around  percent of Spanish words are related to English ones, and that this common origin can be used as the basis for enriching their Spanish vocabulary. The principal origins of Spanish vocabulary can be broken down as follows: Source

Example

Definition

. Latin A. Classical B. Vulgar . Classical Greek

dedicación oveja dinastía

dedication sheep dynasty

[ovine]

 In particular, the language would have moved from what linguists call a synthetic language to a predominantly analytic one. In a synthetic language, relations between nouns and adjectives are expressed by case endings of individual words, while in an analytic language such relations are expressed using prepositions. Defi nite and indefi nite articles (“the”, “a”) would likewise be novelties for Cicero and Caesar, as they did not exist in Classical Latin. Old English was likewise a (largely) synthetic language with neither defi nite nor indefi nite articles.  Like all educated Romans, Cicero and Caesar were fluent in Greek; Caesar’s fi nal words “Et tu, Brute?” (from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar) were in fact reported to have been uttered in Greek rather than Latin.  German Kaiser (“emperor”) continues the original Latin pronunciation of caesar, from which it was derived.  Or, for that matter, between Modern and Old English.

T4311.indb 17

8/31/07 6:42:41 AM



BACKGROUND

. Germanic . Arabic . Other Romance languages A. Latin origin B. Germanic origin . Native American

ropa algodón

clothes cotton

[robe]

jefe balcón patata

chief balcony potato

( French) ( Italian)

Vulgar Latin refers to the spoken Latin of the “plebs”, or common people, as compared to the more rarefied Classical version spoken (and written) by Cicero and those of his ilk. It was this more popular spoken Latin that, following the decline of the (western) Roman Empire, evolved into what is generally called “Proto-Romance” and subsequently into the various individual Romance languages. It is important to keep in mind that in this context vulgar means simply “of the people” (Latin vulgus, also the basis for divulge); initially the word had no “vulgar” connotation. The Vulgate (from Latin editio vulgata) is still the name of the official Latin version of the Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church, based primarily on the translation by St. Jerome in the late fourth to early fift h century AD. vulgo vulgar vulgaridad vulgarismo vulgarizar Vulgata divulgar

common people, ordinary people, the masses vulgar (associated with the “masses”: common, ordinary, unrefined) commonplace (n.), platitude, vulgarity vulgarism (word or manner of expression used chiefly by uneducated people) (to) vulgarize (popularize, disseminate widely, debase) Vulgate (to) divulge, (to) popularize

Romanization of Spain Roman colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal) began in the latter third century BC, at about the same time as that of north-

 In its early history in English, vulgar was applied in a non-negative fashion to a wide array of activities with the meaning of “in common or general use” or “familiar”, e.g., vulgar (common or customary) language and vulgar (common) fractions. Its fi rst negative use in terms of “having a common and offensively mean character” is not recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary until the mid-seventeenth century, and the first negative reference to “vulgar language” (meaning “rude”), only in .

T4311.indb 18

8/31/07 6:42:41 AM

S PA N I S H A S A R O M A N C E L A N G UA G E



ern Italy and nearly a full century before that of Gaul (France). This may seem somewhat surprising, given its greater distance from Rome, but the strategic importance of Hispania (as it came to be called) during the Second Punic War (– BC) against Hannibal and the Carthaginians led to the sending of the first Roman troops in  BC. Prior to the arrival of the Romans, the Iberian Peninsula had been occupied by Iberians in the east and south, Celts—also called Celtiberians to distinguish them from their Gallic cousins in what is now France, and to reflect their presumed mixing with the Iberians—in the north, Lusitanians in the west, Carthaginian colonies in the south, and by several small Greek settlements along the northeast Mediterranean coast. The exact origin of the Basques, and their connection, if any, to these other groups, remains a mystery. The major part of Hispania remained under Roman control for more than six centuries, until the collapse of Roman power in the West and the invasion of Spain by Germanic tribes in the early fift h century AD. Spain’s relatively early colonization and geographic remoteness had important implications for the development of Romance languages in the Iberian Peninsula. The Latin that arrived in the Iberian Peninsula was in many cases an “older” Latin than that used in areas added subsequently to the Roman Empire. This effect was magnified by the relative isolation of the Iberian Peninsula, which meant that innovations from Rome often took much longer to arrive or in many cases never did. Thus, in a number of cases, “early” Latin words (in some cases pre-Classical) form the base of Spanish and Portuguese vocabulary, while later ones are used in other Romance languages. In many of these cases, the word subsequently used by French and Italian represents a more “colorful” or “expressive” (Cicero would have said “vulgar” or “rustic”) term. Early Latin (I)

Later Latin (II)

Spanish

Portuguese French

Italian

. . . . . . . . .

manducare tabula bellus testa spatula sabulum bullire parabolare [caseus] formaticus

comer mesa hermoso cabeza hombro arena hervir hablar queso

comer mesa formoso cabeça ombro areia ferver falar queijo

mangiare tavola bello testa spalla sabbia bollire parlare formaggio

T4311.indb 19

comedere mensa formosus caput humerus arena fervere fabulari caseus

manger table beau tête épaule sable bouillir parler fromage

8/31/07 6:42:41 AM



BACKGROUND

English translations Latin I . . . . . . . . .

(to) eat  table beautiful, handsome head shoulder, humerus (bone) sand (to) boil (to) speak in fables  cheese

Latin II (Original Meaning) (to) chew plank pretty shard or earthen pot small sword, branch coarse sand, gravel (to) bubble (to) speak in parables formed (cheese)

As noted in the introduction, arena in the sense of “stadium” derived from the fact that the central part of a stadium was covered with sand to soak up contestants’ blood (human and animal). Stadium (estadio in Spanish) comes from stadium, the Latin version of the Greek word for racecourse (initially a unit of measure of approximately  feet).

 comedere was in fact a very early “popular” replacement for the basic verb edere (cognate with English eat), fi rst recorded more than one hundred years before the beginning of Classical Latin.  fabulari was an early popular verb for “to speak”—the initial meaning of fabula was simply “conversation”. In early Christian times, a new popular form arose: parabolare. At no time does it appear that the Classical verb loqui (as in loquacious) was popular among the plebs.

T4311.indb 20

8/31/07 6:42:42 AM

SEC TION . 

“Learned” versus “Popular” Words

Words of Latin origin in Spanish have arrived via four essentially different means. They can originate from a) Classical Latin words that were “borrowed” directly into Spanish (often at a relatively late stage), and that have therefore experienced only relatively minor changes—usually to their endings—to make them look (and sound) more “Spanish”: e.g., audiencia from AUDIENTIA, and estricto from STRICTUS. b) Classical Latin words also used by the plebs—and hence forming part of the “vulgar” Latin vocabulary—that have undergone a long process of evolution in pronunciation and spelling (and often meaning as well) over the centuries: e.g., estrecho, also from STRICTUS. c) non-Classical Latin words used only by the plebs that have undergone the same process of evolution as in b): e.g., olvidar (“to forget”) from Vulgar Latin OBLITARE, compared to Classical Latin OBLIVISCI. d) later borrowings by Spanish from other Romance languages— Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan (southern France), French, Italian, and English—of words that may have had either a Classical or a non-Classical origin and that underwent the corresponding “popular” evolution in that language: e.g., reloj (“clock”, “watch”) from (old) Catalan relotge, from Classical Latin HOROLOGIUM.

Words that have followed the first route are frequently called learned words (“lear•ned” in the sense of “erudite”, Spanish culto), while those following the other routes are called popular words. Some also use a third, intermediate category of “semi-learned” words that have undergone substantial linguistic evolution but have nevertheless avoided the full “popular” treatment. For example, auto from Latin actus, as in auto de fe (“judicial act or sentence of the Inquisition”, i.e., an act of faith, an auto-da-fé ), would have become echo if it had undergone the “full” popular treatment. The distinction between “popular” and “learned” could perhaps better be expressed as “evolved” versus “marginally changed”, without any reference to cultural status: the connection with learn-

 The English form comes from an older Portuguese version, where da means “of the”; the modern Portuguese is auto-de-fé.

T4311.indb 21

8/31/07 6:42:42 AM



BACKGROUND

edness is often not obvious, nor is it easy to explain why a “learned” word in one language not infrequently turns out to be a “popular” one in another. In many cases, Latin words have entered Spanish twice, through both the “popular” and the “learned” routes. Examples of such doublets, with the English definition italicized if it is a cognate, are:

Latin

Spanish “Learned” “Popular” () ()

()

()

animal articulus auscultare blasphemia cathedra collocare computare fabricare

animal artículo auscultar blasfemia cátedra colocar computar fabricar

animal article auscultate blasphemy professorship  (to) place (to) compute (to) fabricate

vermin knuckle (to) listen pity hip (to) hang (to) count (to) forge

hospitalis

hospital

hospital

hostel, hotel

integer laicus legalis lucrum multitudo parabola

íntegro laico legal lucro multitud parábola

entire laic legal profit, lucre multitude parabola

entire, integer lay loyal accomplishment crowd, swarm parole

pensare recitare saecularis secundus sextus/sexta species speculum strictus testificari

pensar recitar secular segundo sexto especie espéculo estricto testificar

(to) think (to) recite secular second sixth species speculum strict (to) testify

(to) weigh (to) pray secular according to siesta spice mirror narrow (to) attest

alimaña artejo escuchar lástima cadera colgar contar forjar, fraguar hostal, hotel entero lego leal logro muchedumbre palabra (de honor) pesar rezar seglar según siesta especia espejo estrecho atestiguar

English Definition

 That is, a university chair. Spanish cátedra also maintains various ecclesiastical senses, as does English cathedra.

T4311.indb 22

8/31/07 6:42:42 AM

“LEARNED” VERSUS “POPULAR” WORDS

titulus traditio(n) verificare votum (pl. vota)

título tradición verificar voto

tilde (f.) traición averiguar boda

title tradition (to) verify vow, vote



tilde treason (to) ascertain wedding

For students of Spanish, “learned” words are the easier ones, as in most cases they immediately call to mind a similar English word having the same Latin origin. The majority of the “popular” words are not so instantly recognizable, and it is for this reason that they will be the central focus of Part III. From the above table, one can see that such doublets also occur in English, e.g., compute—count and fabricate—forge. Given the hybrid nature of English, this actually occurs with extraordinary frequency, and triplets (hospital— hostel—hotel) are not uncommon. Additional English examples are provided below, with corresponding Spanish cognates having at least roughly similar definitions—if they exist—shown on the right. Note that quietus has given rise to four English words. Latin

English 

English 

Spanish 

Spanish 

blasphemia calumnia camara/camera capitalis captare caput carricare cursus factio(n) factum flos fragilis major manu operari nausea ordinarius par pausare

blasphemy calumny chamber capital chase chief charge course faction fact flower fragile major maneuver nausea ordinary pair pause

blame challenge camera chattel catch chef carry coarse fashion feat flour frail mayor manure noise ornery peer, par pose

blasfemia calumnia cámara capital cazar jefe cargar curso facción hecho flor (f.) frágil mayor maniobrar náusea ordinario par, pareja pausar

— — cámara caudal — chef acarrear — — — — frágil — — — — par posar



T4311.indb 23

Spanish  corresponds to English , Spanish  to English .

8/31/07 6:42:42 AM



BACKGROUND

privatus proprietas quietus rabies radius

private propriety quiet rabies radius

privy property quite, quit, coy rage radio, ray

privado propiedad quedo, quieto  rabia radio

regalis rotundus securus senior thesaurus uncia  unio(n)

regal rotund secure senior thesaurus ounce union

royal round sure sir, sire treasure inch onion

real  rotundo seguro — tesoro onza unión

privado  propiedad — rabia radio (f.), rayo real redondo seguro señor tesoro — —

The Origin of Spices and the “Soviet Onion” certainly have a somewhat different allure in comparison with their more well-known etymological siblings.

 El privado del rey was a confidant of the king; cf. English privy councilor. In the sense of privy (“toilet”), privada exists but is not common.  Quedo and quieto can both be translated as “quiet”, although they generally have different nuances: quedo in the sense of “in a hushed voice”, quieto in the sense of “still”, “calm”.  Spanish real also means “real”, a meaning derived independently from Latin realis, source of English real.  Latin uncia meant “twelft h part”.

T4311.indb 24

8/31/07 6:42:43 AM

SEC TION . 

Latin: A Few Useful Tools

There are three easily learned phonetic features of Latin that can be of considerable assistance in augmenting one’s Spanish (and English) vocabulary.

() DT and TT S S (or SS) At some point in the path from Indo-European to Latin, a “parasite” s intruded into the combinations dt and tt and eventually took over the whole sound. This was particularly important for the large number of Latin verbs whose root ended in d or t, as the past participle was often formed by adding -tus directly to the root. Thus, DEFEND -TUS S DEFENDSTUS S DEFENSUS

Latin constructed numerous nouns and adjectives using the past participle as a base, which explains why in both English and Spanish there are so many “s” adjectives and nouns associated with verbs whose root ends in d or t. For the verb defend, for example: English

Spanish

(to) defend defense defenseless defensive (defensor)

defender defensa indefenso defensivo defensor

English defensor is now largely obsolete, having been replaced by defender. Other common verbs showing this pattern include: 



A similar transformation occurred in the Germanic languages: cf. wit versus wise. Note that in two cases the original Latin d has disappeared in Spanish (concluir and excluir, compared to conclude and exclude). We will see in Section . that this is not an infrequent occurrence. 

T4311.indb 25

8/31/07 6:42:43 AM



BACKGROUND

Verb

English Noun or Adjective

Verb

Spanish Noun or Adjective

applaud — ascend collide collude comprehend — concede conclude confound consent convert decide dissent divide evade exclude expand explode extend intercede invade invader offend persuade pretend respond ridiculous submit suspend utilize

applause plausible ascension collision collusion comprehension incomprehension concession conclusion confusion consensus conversion decision dissension division evasion exclusion, exclusive expansion explosion extension, extensive intercession invasion — offense persuasion pretension responsible risible, derisory submission suspension use

aplaudir — ascender — coludir comprender — conceder concluir confundir consentir convertir decidir disentir dividir evadir excluir expandir explotar  extender interceder invadir — ofender persuadir pretender  responder ridículo someter suspender utilizar

aplauso plausible  ascensión colisión colusión comprensión incomprensión concesión conclusión confusión consenso conversión decisión disensión división evasión exclusión, exclusivo expansión explosión extensión, extensivo intercesión invasión invasor ofensa persuasión pretensión responsable risible, irrisorio sumisión suspensión usar (vb.), uso (n.)

 Apart from being “plausible” (i.e., “appearing worthy of belief ”), Spanish plausible can mean “praiseworthy”, “laudable”.  Explotar (“to explode”) was a “back formation” from the noun explosión, with a -t rather than a -d due to its confusion with the unrelated verb explotar (“to exploit”).  Although English pretend and Spanish pretender share essentially common meanings, pretend has come to specialize almost entirely in the sense of “to feign”, “to claim or allege insincerely or falsely”, while pretender generally means “to try to”, “to aspire to”. Accordingly, the two words figure on many lists of falsos amigos.

T4311.indb 26

8/31/07 6:42:43 AM

L AT I N : A F E W U S E F U L T O O L S



() S S R between Vowels This change is known as rhotacism (after the Greek letter for r). Evidence of Latin rhotacism is visible in cases where a word with intervocalic s had a related form with either s  consonant or word-final s, which was therefore not subject to this change. English adhesive August cohesion genus honest ingestion inquest just modest onus opus plus pus rustic Venus

Spanish adhere augury coherent general honor [ingest] inquire jury moderate onerous opera plural purulent rural venereal

adhesivo agosto cohesión [género] honesto  ingestión encuesta justo modesto — opus plus pus rústico Venus

adherir augurio, agüero coherente general honor ingerir inquirir jurado moderado, moderar (vb.) oneroso ópera plural purulento rural venéreo

() Weakening of (Short) Vowels in Interior Syllables At some stage in its early history, Latin passed through a period with a strong stress accent on the initial syllable (similar to that of the Germanic languages,

 It also has a partial parallel in the Germanic languages, the difference being that in Germanic, the change of s to r was dependent on its location relative to that of the stressed syllable, whereas in Latin it was essentially universal. The relatively few traces of Germanic rhotacism remaining in Modern English include the couplets: was—were, lost—forlorn, raise—rear.  Most apparent exceptions to this rule (a) entered Latin after the mid-fourth century BC, when the phonetic change had been completed (e.g., rose, asinine, genesis); (b) arose from dt/tt S s (above); or (c) initially had a “hard” ss not subject to the rule, which was subsequently shortened to s (e.g., caussa S causa S English cause, Spanish causa).  As noted in Annex D, the more common meaning of honesto is “upright”, “decent”.

T4311.indb 27

8/31/07 6:42:44 AM



BACKGROUND

including English). As a result, most short vowels  in interior syllables were weakened. Specifically: (a) in open  syllables in the interior of a word, short vowels generally became I, less frequently U;  (b) in interior closed syllables, A generally became E (but U before L consonant).

These changes left their most visible traces in compound words, where an initial syllable was transformed into an interior one and hence became subject to vowel weakening. amicus S in-imicus tenax S per-tinax annualis S bi-ennalis alterare S ad-ulterare

amigo S enemigo tenaz S pertinaz anual S bienal alterar S adulterar

friend S enemy tenacious S pertinacious annual S biennial alter S adulter

In the first example, direct English cognates are amicable S inimical. In the following table, words are grouped according to common roots; for example, cadence and accident are both derived from the verb cadere (“to fall”), root cad-. Spanish and English cognates—generally with very similar meanings—occupy corresponding positions. English Root apcad-

cancap-

Spanish

Initial Syllable

Weakened

Initial Syllable

Weakened

apt cadence cadaver — candle capture chase capital

inept accident occident recidivist incendiary reception recuperate principle

apto cadencia cadáver — candela captura cazar capital

inepto accidente occidente reincidente incendiario recepción recuperación principio

 In Latin there were five vowels—a, e, i, o, u—each of which had a “short” and a “long” variant.  A syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, closed if it ends with a consonant. Thus a in bacon is in an open syllable (ba•con), whereas in bat and banker (bank•er) it is in a closed syllable.  When r followed immediately, the result was generally e. The diphthong au became uu (Slong u), and ae became ii (S long i).

T4311.indb 28

8/31/07 6:42:44 AM

L AT I N : A F E W U S E F U L T O O L S

tac-

— — chaste cause — damn damage face faction — facile facility gradual lesion paternal — savor sedentary Holy See — tacit

principal precipitate incest accuse excuse condemn indemnify superficial confection off ice diff icult diff iculty progress collision perpetrator Jupiter insipid residence assiduous insidious reticent, reticence

— — casto causa — dañar (vb.) daño (n.) faz (f.) facción — fácil facilidad gradual lesión paternal — sabor sedentario Santa Sede — tácito

tang-

tangent

contingent 

tangente

cascaudamfac-

gralaespatsapsed-



principal precipitar incesto acusar excusar condenar indemnizar superficial confección oficina, oficio difícil dificultad progreso colisión perpetrador Júpiter insípido residencia asiduo insidioso reticente, reticencia contingente

 In Latin, the combination eng became ing, regardless of its position in the word; hence con  tang- fi rst became conteng-, then conting-. Th is second change (eng S ing) occurred also in English around the time of Chaucer—hinge and string used to be henge and streng—and is the reason why England is pronounced as if it were spelled “Ingland” (cf. Spanish Inglaterra).

T4311.indb 29

8/31/07 6:42:45 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

PA R T I I

C L A S S I C A L VO C A B U L A RY

T4311.indb 31

8/31/07 6:42:45 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

S E C T I O N  .

“Learned” Latin Words

We have seen in Section . that Spanish words of Latin origin can be divided into two general categories—“learned” or “popular”—according to the degree of restructuring they have undergone. For the native English speaker, the “learned” words should provide little difficulty, since they are, in the vast majority of cases, similar in both form and meaning to English counterparts. “Learned” Latin nouns most frequently represent abstract concepts (e.g., nation, division, liberty, virtue). This should come as no surprise: concrete objects (e.g., finger, knife, bird) are by their very nature far more susceptible to popular “deformations”. In this section we will focus on nouns having the following endings: () -ción () -sión () -tad / -dad () -tud

All of these are feminine nouns. For the first two groups, we will also introduce related words that have the same base: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Numerous other “learned” Latin words will be found in Parts III and IV of the text, as well as in the annexes.

. Words Ending in -ción These correspond to English words ending in -tion. In the large majority of cases, there is an associated verb ending in either -ar or -ir, and very often other associated nouns, adjectives, and verbs having similar (sometimes identical) English counterparts. Thus, to centralización correspond: centralización —centralizar —central (adj. & n.f.) —centro —centrar —centrífugo —centrípeto

T4311.indb 33

centralization —(to) centralize —central, headquarters, electric power station —center, middle —(to) center —centrifugal —centripetal

8/31/07 6:42:45 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

while for abolición: abolición —abolicionista —abolir

abolition, abolishment —abolitionist —(to) abolish

English -mption corresponds to Spanish -nción: asunción consunción exención presunción redención

assumption consumption (illness) exemption presumption redemption

[Asunción, Paraguay]

There are more than two thousand -ción nouns. A sample follows: abdicación —abdicar abnegación abreviación —abreviar —abreviatura absolución —absolver abstención —abstener(se) —abstinencia —abstinente abstracción

—abstracto —abstraer aclamación —aclamar acumulación —acumular

T4311.indb 34

abdication —(to) abdicate abnegation, self-denial, altruism abbreviation, shortening, abridgement —(to) abridge, (to) abbreviate, (to) shorten —abbreviation (of a word) absolution, pardon, acquittal —(to) absolve, (to) acquit abstention —(to) abstain —abstinence —abstinent abstraction (incl. “preoccupation or absentmindedness”) —abstract —(to) abstract, (to) become absorbed or lost in thought acclamation, acclaim —(to) acclaim accumulation —(to) accumulate

8/31/07 6:42:46 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—acumulador adaptación —adaptar —adaptable adicción —adicto (adj. & n.) —adicto al trabajo adjudicación —adjudicar administración —administrar —administrativo —administrador admiración —signo de admiración —admirar —admirador —mirador —mirar —mirada —mirón adopción —adoptar —adoptivo adoración —adorable —adorar adulación —adular alienación —alienar alteración

T4311.indb 35



—accumulator (esp. UK def. “storage battery”) adaptation —(to) adapt, (to) accommodate —adaptable addiction —addicted, addict, follower or supporter —workaholic adjudication, awarding or settling by decree —(to) adjudicate, (to) award administration, manager’s office —(to) administer —administrative —administrator admiration (including “wonder”) —exclamation point (¡ . . . !) —(to) admire —admirer —mirador, lookout, watchtower —(to) look upon, (to) view —glance, look —spectator, onlooker (gen. pejorative, i.e., “nosy”) adoption —(to) adopt —adoptive adoration —adorable —(to) adore adulation —(to) adulate, (to) flatter alienation (emotional, or of property) —(to) alienate, to dispossess ( enajenar) alteration, change

8/31/07 6:42:46 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—alterar ambición —ambicioso amplificación —amplificar —amplificador (adj. & n.) amputación —amputar anotación —anotar aplicación —aplicar —aplicado asimilación —asimilar asociación —asociar —asociado (adj. & n.) asunción —asumir —asunto —asuntos exteriores calificación —cualificación —calidad —cualidad  —calificar  cualificar

—(to) alter, (to) disturb, (to) upset ambition —ambitious amplification —(to) amplify —amplifying, amplifier amputation —(to) amputate annotation, note —(to) annotate, (to) note, (to) score ( marcar) application (in most senses except “request”, “form”) —(to) apply (in most senses except “to request”) —applied, hardworking assimilation —(to) assimilate, (to) be similar to association —(to) associate, (to) join —associated, associate, member ( socio) assumption, Assumption (cap.) —(to) assume —matter, subject, affair, business —foreign affairs qualification, grade (mark), rating —professional qualifications (for a specific job) —quality, condition, rank —quality, property, characteristic —(to) qualify (characterize, rate, etc.)



Cualidad and calidad are, broadly speaking, equivalent. The former applies more to quality in the sense of property or intrinsic nature, the latter more to quality in the sense of good or bad. Thus one says: No me gusta la calidad de esta tela; tiene la cualidad de ser muy esponjosa (“I don’t like the quality of this fabric; it has the quality of being like a sponge”).

T4311.indb 36

8/31/07 6:42:46 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—calificado  cualificado —calificativo —cualitativo celebración —celebrar —célebre —celebridad certificación —certificar —certificado circulación —círculo —circular —circulatorio —circuito —[tortuoso, indirecto] clasificación —clase (f.) —clásico (adj. & n.) —clasificar colaboración —colaborar —colaborador (adj. & n.)

—colaboracionista colección —coleccionar —coleccionista —colecta —colectividad



—qualified (experienced, authoritative) —qualifying, expression  —qualitative celebration —(to) celebrate —celebrated, famous —celebrity, fame certification, certificate —(to) certify —certified or registered (mail), certificate circulation, traffic —circle —circular (adj.), circular (n.f.), (to) circulate —circulatory (blood), traffic (adj.) —circuit, excursion (returning to initial point) —circuitous classification —class, category —classical, classic —(to) classify, (to) arrange collaboration —(to) collaborate —collaborating, collaborator (positive sense) —collaborationist, collaborator (with enemy) collection —(to) collect (stamps, coins, etc.) —collector —collection (of money, food, etc.) —collectivity, community

 For example: No pudo encontrar calificativos para expresar su enfado (“He was unable to fi nd the words to express his annoyance”).

T4311.indb 37

8/31/07 6:42:46 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—colectivo —recolección colonización —colonizar —colonial —colono —colonia —colonialismo —colonialista combinación —combinar compensación —compensar complicación —complicar —complicado concentración —concentrar —concéntrico concepción —concepto —concebir condensación —condensar —condensador —denso —densidad confederación —confederar configuración —configurar confirmación

—collective, association, bus (Amer.) —collection (information, money, etc.), harvest colonization —(to) colonize —colonial —colonist, settler, tenant farmer —(eau de) cologne, colony —colonialism —colonialist combination, mix, lady’s slip, cocktail, compound (chem.) —(to) combine, (to) mix compensation —(to) compensate, (to) offset complication —(to) complicate —complicated concentration —(to) concentrate —concentric conception (idea, fertilization) —concept, opinion —(to) conceive (idea, offspring) condensation —(to) condense —condenser —dense —density confederation, confederacy —(to) confederate configuration —(to) configure, (to) shape, (to) form confirmation

 The perfume cologne owes its name to the French form of the German city Köln, which in turn comes from the name of the original Latin settlement on the Rhine, Colonia Agrippina (“Colony of Agrippina”, Agrippina being the mother of the Roman emperor Nero).

T4311.indb 38

8/31/07 6:42:47 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—confirmar confiscación —confiscar —fiscal (adj. & n.) —fisco congregación —congregar conjugación —conjugar —conyugal —cónyuge (m./f.) connotación conservación —conservar —conservante —conserva —conservatorio —conservador —conservadurismo consideración —considerar —considerado (p.p.) —considerable consolidación —consolidar construcción —construir —constructivo —constructor contaminación —contaminar —contaminante (adj. & n.)

T4311.indb 39



—(to) confirm confiscation —(to) confiscate —fiscal, public prosecutor, district attorney —fisc (treasury of a kingdom or state) congregation —(to) congregate, (to) assemble conjugation —(to) conjugate —conjugal —spouse ( esposo, consorte) connotation conservation, preservation —(to) conserve, (to) maintain, (to) keep —preservative —preserved (canned) food, conserve —conservatory —conservative (adj. & n.), curator (museum) —conservatism consideration —(to) consider —considerate, held in high regard —considerable consolidation —(to) consolidate construction, building —(to) construct —constructive —construction (adj.), builder, constructor contamination, pollution —(to) contaminate, (to) pollute —contaminating, polluting, contaminant, pollutant

8/31/07 6:42:47 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

contemplación —sin contemplaciones —contemplar contrarrevolución —contrarrevolucionario contravención —contravenir conversación —conversar cooperación —cooperar —cooperativo (adj.) —cooperativa (n.) coordinación —coordinar —coordinado —coordenadas corroboración —corroborar declaración —declarar declinación —declinar dedicación —dedicar definición —definir —definido (p.p.) —indefinido —definitivo deformación —deformar —deforme

T4311.indb 40

contemplation, complaisance or pampering (pl.) —harshly, discourteously —(to) contemplate, (to) pamper counterrevolution —counterrevolutionary (adj. & n.) contravention —(to) contravene conversation —(to) converse, (to) chat cooperation —(to) cooperate —cooperative —cooperative, co-op coordination —(to) coordinate —coordinated, coordinate (gram.) —coordinate (math., geog.) corroboration —(to) corroborate declaration, statement, testimony —(to) declare, (to) state, (to) testify declination (falling off; astronomical), declension —(to) decline (diminish; refuse politely; grammar) dedication, inscription —(to) dedicate definition —(to) define —definite —indefinite —definitive, conclusive deformation —(to) deform, (to) distort —deformed, misshapen

8/31/07 6:42:47 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

degradación —degradar —degradante delegación —delegar —delegado (p.p.) desolación —desolar —desolador detección —detective ( Eng.) —detectar —detector determinación —determinar devoción —devoto (adj. & n.) dicción —diccionario difamación —difamar —difamatorio discriminación —discriminar disipación —disipar distribución —distribuir —distribuidor —distribuidora documentación —documentar —documento —documental (adj. & n.)

T4311.indb 41



degradation —(to) degrade, (to) moderate in intensity (e.g., light) —degrading delegation —(to) delegate —delegate desolation, ruin —(to) desolate, (to) devastate —devastating, distressing detection —detective —(to) detect —detector determination (act of deciding, firmness of purpose) —(to) determine, (to) decide devotion —devout, pious, devoted, devout person diction, enunciation, pronunciation —dictionary defamation —(to) defame —defamatory discrimination —(to) discriminate dissipation —(to) dissipate distribution, layout (house or building) —(to) distribute —distributing, distributor (person [m./f.], car [m.]) —distributor (commercial, e.g., movies) documentation —(to) document —document —documentary

8/31/07 6:42:47 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

donación —donar —donativo —don ebullición —bullir edificación —edificar —edificante —edificio educación —educar —educativo elevación —elevar —elevador eliminación —eliminar —eliminatorio emigración —emigrar —emigrante (adj. & n.) erudición —erudito (adj. & n.) evacuación —evacuar evaporación —evaporar —vapor —al vapor —vaporizar evocación —evocar

T4311.indb 42

donation (act) —(to) donate, (to) bestow —donation (what is given), donative —gift, talent ebullition, boiling —(to) boil, (to) bubble building (act), edifice, edification —(to) build (building or company), (to) edify (moral) —edifying (serving as a good example) —building, edifice education, training, breeding (manners) —(to) educate, (to) train —educational, educative elevation —(to) raise, (to) elevate elevator ( ascensor), hoist, lift elimination —(to) eliminate —qualifying or preliminary (e.g., sports competition) emigration —(to) emigrate —emigrant erudition —erudite, learned person evacuation —(to) evacuate (incl. “to defecate”) evaporation —(to) evaporate (incl. “to vanish”) —vapor, steam, steamboat —steamed (vegetables, etc.) —(to) vaporize, (to) evaporate evocation —(to) evoke, (to) recall

8/31/07 6:42:48 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—evocador evolución —evolucionar —evolutivo exasperación —exasperar excepción —excepcional —excepto —exceptuar exclamación —exclamar exención —exento —eximir exhibición —exhibir —exhibicionista exhortación —exhortar exhumación —exhumar expectación —expectativa explicación —explicar —explícito —inexplicable exploración —explorar —explorador (adj. & n.) —exploratorio exportación —exportar —exportador (adj. & n.) exterminación

—evocative evolution —(to) evolve —evolutionary exasperation —(to) exasperate exception —exceptional —except, excepting —(to) except exclamation —(to) exclaim exemption —exempt, isolated (building, pillar) —(to) exempt exhibition —(to) exhibit —exhibitionist exhortation —(to) exhort exhumation, disinterment —(to) exhume, (to) disinter expectation (act of expecting, eager anticipation) —expectation, hope explication, explanation —(to) explicate, (to) explain —explicit —inexplicable, unexplainable exploration —(to) explore —exploring, explorer —exploratory exportation, export —(to) export —exporting, exporter extermination ( exterminio)



(old p.p.)  († eximious)

 A number of “irregular” Spanish past participles have been replaced by “regular” ones, with the “old” form remaining as a separate adjective. See Brodsky (, –).

T4311.indb 43

8/31/07 6:42:48 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—exterminar —exterminio extradición —extraditar federación —federar —federal felicitación —felicitar fermentación —fermentar —fermento ficción —ficticio fluctuación —fluctuar formación —formar —forma fortificación —fortificar frustración —frustrar función —funcionar —funcional —funcionario generación —generar —generador (adj. & n.) germinación —germinar —germen —germen de trigo humillación

T4311.indb 44

—(to) exterminate —extermination extradition —(to) extradite federation —(to) federate —federal felicitation, congratulation, congratulations (pl.) —(to) congratulate, (to) felicitate fermentation —(to) ferment —ferment fiction —fictitious fluctuation —(to) fluctuate formation, education, training —(to) form, (to) educate, (to) train —form (shape, manner, method, etc.) fortification —(to) fortify frustration, disappointment —(to) frustrate, (to) disappoint function, performance (cinema, circus, etc.) —(to) function —functional —functionary, public official, civil servant generation —(to) generate —generating, (electric) generator germination —(to) germinate —germ —wheat germ humiliation

8/31/07 6:42:48 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—humillante —humilde —humildad —humillar identificación —identificar —identidad —idéntico —ídem ignición iluminación —iluminar imaginación —imagen (f.) —imaginar —imaginable —inimaginable —imaginario —imaginativo imperfección —imperfecto implicación —implicar —implícito importación —importar () —importar ()

—no (me) importa —importador (adj. & n.) —importe improvisación —improvisar —de improviso imputación —imputar

T4311.indb 45



—humiliating, humbling —humble, modest —humility —(to) humiliate, (to) humble identification —(to) identify —identity —identical —idem, the same, ditto ignition illumination —(to) illuminate, (to) enlighten imagination —image —(to) imagine —imaginable —unimaginable —imaginary —imaginative imperfection —imperfect implication —(to) imply, (to) involve, (to) implicate —implicit, implied importation, import —(to) import (merchandise) —important (be important), (to) be worth (an amount) —it doesn’t matter (to me) —importing, importer —cost, price, value improvisation (musical or otherwise) —(to) improvise —unexpectedly, suddenly imputation, accusation —(to) impute (charge with fault)

8/31/07 6:42:49 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

incitación —incitar inclinación —inclinar incubación —incubar —incubadora indignación —indignar —indigno industrialización —industrializar —industrial —industria infección —infectar —infeccioso infestación —infestar inflación —inflar —inflacionario —deflación ( Eng.) —desinflar inhibición —inhibir iniciación —iniciar —inicial —iniciativa —inicio —iniciático inspección —inspeccionar —inspector instalación —instalar

T4311.indb 46

incitation, incitement —(to) incite inclination, bow, curtsy —(to) incline (incl. “to influence”) incubation —(to) incubate —incubator indignation —(to) make indignant, (to) anger —unworthy industrialization —(to) industrialize —industrial —industry infection —(to) infect —infectious infestation —(to) infest, (to) overrun inflation —(to) inflate —inflationary ( inflacionista) —deflation (economic) —(to) deflate inhibition —(to) inhibit, (to) abstain from initiation, start —(to) initiate, (to) begin —initial —initiative —beginning, start —initiating (pert. to initiation ceremony or ritual) inspection —(to) inspect —inspector installation —(to) install

[† indign]

8/31/07 6:42:49 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

instigación —instigar —instigador instrucción —instruir —instructivo —instructor insurrección —insurrecto (adj. & n.) —insurgente (adj. & n.) integración —integrar —integral (adj. & n.f.) —íntegro interpretación —interpretar —intérprete (m./f.) interrogación —interrogar —interrogante —interrogatorio interrupción —interrumpir —interruptor intervención —intervenir —interventor intimidación —intimidar introducción —introducir —introductorio intuición —intuitivo

T4311.indb 47



instigation, incitement —(to) instigate, (to) incite —instigator instruction, education —(to) instruct, (to) educate —instructive —instructor insurrection —insurgent, rebel —insurgent integration —(to) integrate —integral —whole, entire, upright interpretation —(to) interpret —interpreter (languages, actor, musician) interrogation (one question), question mark ( interrogante) —(to) interrogate, (to) question —questioning, unresolved issue (m./f.), question mark (m.) —interrogation (series of questions) interruption —(to) interrupt —electric switch, light switch, circuit breaker intervention, surgical operation —(to) intervene (in), (to) operate on (medical) —auditor, controller, monitor (elections) intimidation —(to) intimidate introduction —(to) introduce —introductory intuition —intuitive

8/31/07 6:42:49 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—intuir inundación —inundar investigación —investigar —investigador (adj. & n.) —vestigio invitación —invitar —invitado (adj. & n.) invocación —invocar irritación —irritar —irritable —irritante lamentación —lamentar —lamentable —lamento liquidación —liquidar —liquidador —líquido (adj. & n.) —liquidez —licuar —licor loción medicación —médico —medicamento —medicina

T4311.indb 48

—(to) grasp intuitively, (to) intuit inundation, flood, flooding —(to) inundate, (to) flood investigation, inquiry, research —(to) investigate, (to) inquire into, (to) research —investigating, investigative, investigator —vestige, trace, sign invitation —(to) invite —invited (person), guest invocation —(to) invoke irritation —(to) irritate —irritable —irritant lamentation —(to) lament —lamentable —lament liquidation, clearance sale, settlement (debt, account) —(to) liquidate (debt, business, person) —liquidator —liquid, liquid cash or (commercial) balance —liquidity (generally financial), liquidness —(to) liquefy, (to) liquate (metals) —liquor, liqueur lotion medication, treatment —doctor, physician —medicament, medicine, drug —medicine (medication, branch of science)

8/31/07 6:42:49 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—medicinal meditación —meditar memorización —memorizar —memoria —memorias (pl.) —memorable —memorial —memorándum migración —migrar —migratorio mitigación —mitigar moción —[movimiento] modernización —modernizar —moderno —modernidad —modernismo modificación —modificar munición nación —nacional —internacional —nacionalismo —nacionalista —nacionalizar narración —narrar —narrador —narrativo (adj.)

T4311.indb 49



—medicinal meditation —(to) meditate, (to) ponder memorization —(to) memorize —memory, report —memoirs —memorable —memorial (incl. “petition”), memorandum book —memorandum, memo migration —(to) migrate —migratory mitigation, alleviation, soothing —(to) mitigate, (to) alleviate, (to) soothe motion (supporting a nomination, of censure, etc.) —motion (physical), movement modernization —(to) modernize —modern —modernity —modernism modification —(to) modify munition, ammunition (freq. pl.) nation —national —international —nationalism —nationalist —(to) nationalize, (to) naturalize (grant citizenship) narration, narrative —(to) narrate —narrator —narrative

8/31/07 6:42:49 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—narrativa (n.) noción nominación —nominar —nominal normalización —normalizar —normal —norma nutrición —nutrir —nutritivo observación —observar —observador (adj. & n.) —observatorio obstinación —obstinar(se) —obstinado (p.p.) obstrucción —obstruir opción —opcional —optar palpitación —palpitar —palpitante —palpar —palpable participación —participar

T4311.indb 50

—narrative (literary genre incl. novel and short story) notion, idea nomination, naming (to a position) —(to) nominate (gen. for a prize or honor) —nominal normalization —(to) normalize, (to) become normal —normal —norm, rule nutrition —(to) nourish, (to) nurture —nutritive, nutritious, nourishing observation —(to) observe —observant, observer —observatory obstinacy —(to) be obstinate or persist (in) —obstinate obstruction —(to) obstruct option —optional —(to) opt, (to) choose, (to) aspire to (a position) palpitation, throbbing —(to) palpitate, (to) throb —palpitating, throbbing, burning (e.g., question) —(to) touch, (to) feel, (to) palpate —palpable, evident participation —(to) participate, (to) partake (in or of), (to) notify

8/31/07 6:42:50 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—participante (adj. & n.) —partícipe —participio penetración —penetrar —penetrante —impenetrable percepción —percibir —perceptible —imperceptible perfección —perfecto —perfeccionar —perfeccionista perforación —perforar perpetuación —perpetuo —perpetuar —perpetuidad perturbación —perturbar —perturbado (adj. & n.) petición poción predilección —predilecto preparación —preparativo (adj. & n.)

—preparar preservación —preservar —preservativo prestidigitación

T4311.indb 51



—participating, participant —participant ( participante) —participle penetration —(to) penetrate —penetrating —impenetrable perception, receiving (of money, rent, etc.) —(to) perceive, (to) receive (salary, pension, etc.) —perceptible —imperceptible perfection —perfect —(to) perfect —perfectionist perforation, drilling, boring —(to) drill, (to) bore, (to) perforate perpetuation —perpetual —(to) perpetuate —perpetuity perturbation, disturbance —(to) perturb, (to) disturb —perturbed, disturbed ( loco) petition, (formal) request potion predilection, preference —favorite, preferred preparation (making ready) —preparatory, preparation (something prepared— gen. pl.) —(to) prepare, (to) make ready preservation —(to) preserve (protect) —preservative (adj.), condom prestidigitation (sleight of hand, magic)

8/31/07 6:42:50 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

presunción —presumir —presumido (p.p.) —presunto (old p.p.) —presuntuoso privación —privar —privado (p.p.) proclamación —proclamar —proclama producción —producir —producto —productor (adj. & n.) —productivo —productividad —contraproducente prohibición —prohibir —prohibitivo prolongación —prolongar promulgación —promulgar propagación —propagar —propaganda proscripción —proscribir —proscrito provocación —provocar

T4311.indb 52

presumption —(to) presume or surmise, (to) be vain or conceited —conceited, vain —presumed, presumptive —presumptuous, pretentious privation, deprivation —(to) deprive —private, favorite of the king (m.) proclamation —(to) proclaim —proclamation, public notice (e.g., marriage banns) production —(to) produce —product (also mathematical), result —producing, producer —productive —productivity —counterproductive prohibition —(to) prohibit —prohibitive prolongation, extension —(to) extend, (to) prolong promulgation (official publication of law or decree) —(to) promulgate propagation —(to) propagate, (to) spread —advertising, propaganda proscription, exile —(to) proscribe, (to) banish, (to) exile —exile, outlaw, proscribed person provocation —(to) provoke, (to) incite

(old p.p.)

8/31/07 6:42:50 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—provocador (adj. & n.) —agente provocador —provocativo recepción —recepcionista —receptivo —receptor (adj. & n.) —recibir —recibo —recipiente recitación —recital —recitar reconstrucción —reconstruir rectificación —rectificar redención —redimir —redentor (adj. & n.) reducción —reducir refutación —refutar reiteración —reiterar —iteración —iterativo remuneración —remunerar reparación —reparar

T4311.indb 53

—provoking, provocative, provoker —(agent) provocateur —provocative reception (delivery, hotel lobby, ceremony with guests) —receptionist —receptive —receiving, receiver, recipient (transplant, message) —(to) receive —receipt —container, receptacle recitation, public reading (poetry) —recital —(to) recite reconstruction —(to) reconstruct rectification (correction, conversion of AC to DC) —(to) rectify (correct, convert AC to DC) redemption —(to) redeem (self, property), (to) ransom —redeeming, redeemer, Savior (cap.) reduction —(to) reduce refutation —(to) refute reiteration —(to) reiterate —iteracion —iterative remuneration —(to) remunerate repair, reparation —(to) repair, (to) notice



[recipient]

8/31/07 6:42:50 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—reparo repetición —repetir —repetitivo reproducción —reproducir reputación —reputar revocación —revocar satisfacción —satisfacer —satisfecho —satisfactorio saturación —saturar sección —sector —intersección —segmento sedición segregación —segregar selección —seleccionar —selectivo —selectividad —selecto sensación —sensacional separación —separar

—repair, objection, qualm repetition —(to) repeat, (to) reiterate —repetitive reproduction, imitation or copy —(to) reproduce reputation —(to) esteem, (to) repute revocation, annulation —(to) revoke, (to) plaster or paint (exterior wall) satisfaction —(to) satisfy —satisfied —satisfactory saturation —(to) saturate, (to) fi ll up section, cross-section —sector, area —intersection —segment sedition segregation, secretion —(to) segregate, (to) separate, (to) secrete selection —(to) select —selective —selectivity —select, exclusive sensation —sensational separation —(to) separate, (to) move apart, (to) sever 

(old p.p.)

 The confusion in the spelling of separate (versus *seperate) goes back to Classical Latin days. The plebs preferred *seperate, and it was this form that gave rise to French sevrer and thence to English sever. Separate is a “learned” English word formed directly from the original (“correct”) Latin past participle. Similarly, separable and several are etymologically the same word.

T4311.indb 54

8/31/07 6:42:51 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—separado —separable —inseparable simulación —simular sublimación —sublimar —sublime —subliminal tradición —tradicional transcripción —transcribir transformación  —transformar —transformador transición —tránsito —transitorio —transitar —transitivo —intransitivo unificación —unificar —unión —unir —desunión usurpación —usurpar utilización —utilizar —utilitario (adj. & n.) —utilidad —útil (adj. & n.)



—separate, separated —separable —inseparable simulation —(to) simulate sublimation, exaltation —(to) sublimate, (to) exalt —sublime —subliminal tradition —traditional transcription —(to) transcribe transformation —(to) transform —transforming, (electrical) transformer (m.) transition —transit, traffic, stopover —transitory —(to) walk (along public streets), (to) transit —transitive —intransitive unification —(to) unify —union —(to) unite, (to) join —disunion, discord usurpation —(to) usurp utilization, use —(to) utilize, (to) use —practical, small (economy class) car —utility, usefulness, profit —useful, utile, tool

 These words (and those in the succeeding group) can also be spelled with an initial tras-, although the trans- forms (preferred by the RAE) are by far the more common.

T4311.indb 55

8/31/07 6:42:51 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

vacilación —vacilar vegetación —vegetal (adj. & n.) —vegetar —vegetariano (adj. & n.) veneración —venerar —venerable vibración —vibrar —vibrador (adj. & n.) vocación —vocacional votación —votar —voto

vacillation, hesitation, unsteadiness —(to) vacillate vegetation, (enlargement of) adenoids (pl.) —vegetal, vegetable (adj.), plant —(to) vegetate —vegetarian veneration —(to) venerate —venerable vibration —(to) vibrate, (to) quiver —vibrating, vibrator vocation —vocational voting, balloting —(to) vote —vote, vow

Two subgroups bear special mention—those corresponding to English -jection and to (other words ending in) -ction. (a) For English words ending in -jection, there are three possible endings in Spanish: -jección, -jeción, or -yección interjección

interjection

objeción sujeción

objection subjection

abyección deyección eyección inyección proyección

abjection, abjectness droppings (excrement), defecation ejection injection projection

[dejection ]

Related words—verbs, nouns, and adjectives—maintain the -j or -y and follow a very specific pattern with regard to the interior consonant combination: for 

T4311.indb 56

One of the defi nitions of English dejection is “Evacuation of the intestinal tract; defecation”.

8/31/07 6:42:51 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S



those ending in -cción, it is -ct, while for those having “reduced” endings in -ción, it is simply -t: interjectivo (rare)

interjectional (pertaining to interjections)

objetar —objeto —objetivo —objetividad sujetar —sujeto —sujetador —subjetivo —subjetividad

(to) object —object —objective —objectivity (to) subject, (to) grasp, (to) hold —(securely) attached, subject (adj. & n.) —brassiere ( sostén) —subjective —subjectivity

abyecto eyectar —eyector

abject (to) eject —ejector (firearm; pump using jet of water, air, or steam) (to) inject —injector —injectable (to) project, (to) cast, (to) plan —project, plan —projector, spotlight —projectile

inyectar —inyector —inyectable proyectar —proyecto —proyector —proyectil

(old p.p.)

Also: trayecto —trayectoria

course, route, distance, journey —trajectory

(b) Other English words ending in -ction correspond to Spanish words ending in -cción: acción confección constricción corrección destrucción elección fricción inducción predicción

T4311.indb 57

action, share (stock market) confection, dressmaking, tailoring constriction correction, correctness destruction election, choice friction, rubbing induction, inducement prediction

8/31/07 6:42:52 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

protección succión transacción

protection suction transaction, compromise

. Words Ending in -sión These correspond to English words ending in -sion or -ssion. In the large majority of cases, there is an associated verb—generally ending in -ar or -ir—and often additional related “classical” forms having similar (sometimes identical) English counterparts. Thus, to English depression correspond: depresión —depresivo —deprimir  —deprimente

depression (physical, mental, economic) —depressive —(to) depress —depressing

In a number of cases, as noted in Section ., the corresponding verb has a stem consonant of -d or -t rather than -s; for example, transgresión —transgredir —transgresor dimisión —dimitir

transgression —(to) transgress —transgressor demission, resignation (of an office) —(to) resign, (to) demit

There are approximately  Spanish -sión nouns, including: adhesión —adhesivo —adherir —adherente (adj.) —adherencia admisión —admitir

adhesion —adhesive —(to) adhere (to a surface or a belief) —adherent (sticking or holding fast) —adhesiveness, adherence admission, acceptance —(to) admit, (to) accept (entry)

 Spanish -primir corresponds to English -press (deprimir comes from Latin deprimere, whose past participle depressus gave rise, via French, to English depress).

T4311.indb 58

8/31/07 6:42:52 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—admisible —inadmisible circuncisión —circuncidar cohesión —coherencia —coherente —incoherente comisión —comisionar —comisario —comisaría compasión —compasivo compresión —comprimir compulsión —compulsivo —compulsa —compulsar —compeler concesión —conceder concusión confesión —confesar —confeso —confesor —confesionario, confesonario contusión conversión

T4311.indb 59

—admissible —inadmissible circumcision —(to) circumcise cohesion —coherence, consistency —coherent (orderly, logical), consistent —incoherent (lacking cohesion), inconsistent commission (act of doing, fee, committee) —(to) commission, (to) delegate —commissioner (e.g., of police), commissary (deputy) —police station, commissioner’s office compassion —compassionate compression —(to) compress compulsion —compulsive —certified copy (legal) —(to) certify a copy of a document —(to) compel, (to) force concession, grant —(to) concede, (to) grant concussion confession —(to) confess —confessed, self-confessed, converted (Jew) —confessor (priest who hears confession) —confessional box



(old p.p.)

contusion, bruise conversion, transformation

8/31/07 6:42:52 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—convertir —converso convulsión —convulsivo difusión —difundir —difuso digresión discusión —discutir —discutible dispersión —dispersar —disperso disuasión —disuadir —disuasivo diversión —divertir —divertido (p.p.) —ser divertido —estar divertido —diverso —diversidad —diversificación —diversificar efusión —efusivo emisión —emitir erosión —erosionar exclusión —excluir —exclusivo (adj.) —exclusiva (n.)

T4311.indb 60

—(to) convert, (to) transform —converted (to Christianity, esp. Jew or Muslim), convert convulsion —convulsive diff usion, transmission —(to) diff use, (to) spread, (to) broadcast —diff use, vague digression discussion, argument —(to) discuss, (to) argue —debatable, arguable dispersion, scattering —(to) disperse, (to) scatter, (to) rout (mil.) —dispersed, scattered dissuasion —(to) dissuade —dissuasive diversion, amusement —(to) divert, (to) amuse —diverting, amusing, fun —(to) be funny —(to) be amused —diverse, different, various —diversity —diversification —(to) diversify eff usion (outpouring of liquid or feeling) —eff usive emission, broadcast —(to) emit, (to) broadcast erosion —(to) erode exclusion —(to) exclude —exclusive —exclusive (news story, right)

(old p.p.)

(old p.p.)

(old p.p.)

8/31/07 6:42:52 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—exclusive (adv.) —hasta el capítulo doce exclusive excursión expansión —expandir —expansivo explosión —explosionar —explosivo —explotar () —explotar ()  —explotación expresión —expresar —expresivo —inexpresivo —expreso (adj. & n.) —exprimir expulsión —expulsar extensión —extender —extenso —extensible fisión —fisura fusión —fusionar impresión —impresionante —impresionar

—not including, exclusive of —up to but not including chapter  excursion, trip, tour expansion, relaxation —(to) expand, (to) extend —expansive explosion —(to) explode —explosive (adj. & n.m.), (ex)plosive (n.f.) —(to) explode —(to) exploit —exploitation (of a mine, of a person) expression —(to) express —expressive —inexpressive —expressed, express, special, express (train) —(to) squeeze, (to) wring out, (to) express (juice) expulsion —(to) expel, (to) eject extension, expanse, spreading (e.g., fire) —(to) extend, (to) write out or draw up (check, deed, etc.) —extensive, vast —extensible, extendible fission —fissure fusion, melting, merger —(to) fuse, (to) merge impression, printing —impressive —(to) impress



(old p.p.)

(old p.p.)

 Explotar () comes from French exploiter (source of English exploit) and has nothing to do with explosión.

T4311.indb 61

8/31/07 6:42:53 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—impresionismo —impresionista —imprimir —impreso (adj. & n.) —impresor —impresora —imprénta —prensa

—prensar impulsión —impulso —impulsar —impulsivo incisión —incisivo (adj. & n.) inclusión —incluir —incluso —incluso los franceses —inclusa —inclusivo (adj.) —inclusive (adv.) —hasta el  de marzo inclusive incursión —incurrir infusión —infundir intrusión —intruso (adj. & n.) inversión —invertir —inverso

T4311.indb 62

—impressionism —impressionist —(to) print, (to) imprint —printed, booklet, printed matter —printer (person) —printer (machine) —printing, print shop —press (vise, hydraulic, printing); “the press” —(to) compress, (to) squeeze impulsion, impulse, drive —impulse, impetus, momentum —(to) impel, (to) drive, (to) prompt —impulsive incision —incisive, sharp, incisor (tooth) inclusion —(to) include —including, even —even the French —foundling home —inclusive —inclusive, including —up to and including the seventh of March incursion —(to) incur, (to) commit (fault, crime) infusion —(to) infuse intrusion —intrusive, intruder, unauthorized practitioner inversion, investment —(to) invert, (to) invest —inverse, inverted, opposite

(old p.p.)

[imprint]

(old p.p.)

(old p.p.)

(old p.p.)

8/31/07 6:42:53 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—inversionista  inversor mansión omisión —omitir —omiso opresión —opresivo —opresor (adj. & n.) —oprimir pasión —pasional —apasionar —apasionado —apasionante pensión —pensionista —pienso persuasión —persuadir —persuasivo perversión —pervertir —perversidad —perverso precisión —preciso —imprecisión —impreciso —precisar presión —presionar profesión —profesional

T4311.indb 63



—investor mansion omission —(to) omit —careless, remiss oppression —oppressive —oppressing, oppressor —(to) oppress, (to) press (button), (to) pinch (clothes) passion —passionate (e.g., crime), passional —(to) impassion, (to) appeal deeply to —impassioned, passionate —captivating, gripping, exciting pension (payment, boardinghouse, room and board) —boarder, pensioner (recipient of pension) —feed (pensión for livestock) persuasion —(to) persuade —persuasive perversion —(to) pervert —perversity —perverse, wicked, perverted precision, necessity —precise, necessary —imprecision —imprecise —(to) express precisely, (to) require pressure —(to) press, (to) exert pressure on profession —professional

8/31/07 6:42:53 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

—profesar —profesor progresión —progresar —progreso —progresivo —progresista (adj. & n.) propulsión —propulsar provisión —provisional repercusión —repercutir represión —represivo —reprimir —reprimenda repulsión —repulsa —repulsivo —repeler —repelente subversión —subvertir —subversivo supresión —suprimir suspensión —suspender —suspenso (adj. & n.) —en suspenso —suspense ( Eng.) tensión

T4311.indb 64

—(to) profess (incl. “practice a profession”, “teach”) —professor, teacher progression —(to) progress —progress —progressive (that which progresses) —progressive (point of view, e.g., political party) propulsion —(to) propel, (to) push forward provision, supply —provisional repercussion, impact —(to) affect, (to) reverberate repression —repressive —(to) repress, (to) restrain —reprimand repulsion, repugnance —repulse (rejection, refusal) —repulsive, repellent —(to) repel, (to) repulse —repellent (adj. & n.), repulsive subversion —(to) subvert —subversive suppression —(to) suppress, (to) abolish, (to) leave out suspension —(to) suspend, (to) hang, (to) fail (an exam) —suspended, perplexed, failing mark —in suspense, pending —suspense tension (incl. electric), stress, blood pressure

(old p.p.)

8/31/07 6:42:53 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

—tensar —tenso transfusión —transfundir transmisión —transmitir —transmisible —transmisor versión



—(to) tense, (to) tighten —tense, tight, taut transfusion —(to) transfuse transmission —(to) transmit —transmissible —transmitting, transmitter (radio, TV—m.) version (incl. “translation”)

English -tortion corresponds to Spanish -torsión, as in: contorsión —contorsionista —contorsionar(se) distorsión —distorsionar extorsión —extorsionar torsión

contortion —contortionist —(to) contort distortion —(to) distort extortion —(to) extort torsion, twisting

. Words Ending in -dad and -tad These generally correspond to English nouns ending in -ty. The overwhelming majority—more than one thousand—end in -dad, and fewer than twenty end in -tad. Apart from mitad, the -tad ending always follows a consonant, while the -dad ending can follow either a consonant or a vowel: consonant ⴙ -tad vowel ⴙ -dad consonant ⴙ -dad

libertad fraternidad crueldad

liberty fraternity cruelty

(a) Words Ending in -tad This is the list of all of the -tad words in common use: amistad deslealtad dificultad enemistad

T4311.indb 65

amity, friendship disloyalty difficulty enmity, hostility

8/31/07 6:42:54 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

facultad lealtad libertad majestad mitad potestad pubertad tempestad voluntad

faculty (capacity, division of a university) loyalty liberty majesty half, middle, moiety  power, jurisdiction [rare potestas] puberty tempest, storm will, disposition [† volunty]

(b) Words Ending in -dad The following is a sampling of words ending in -dad: actividad adversidad agilidad amabilidad ancianidad

activity adversity agility amiability, kindness, niceness old age

animosidad anormalidad ansiedad antigüedad autenticidad banalidad bondad brevedad brutalidad calamidad capacidad caridad cavidad

animosity abnormality anxiety antiquity, seniority, antique (gen. pl.) authenticity banality goodness, kindness brevity brutality calamity capacity, ability charity cavity (non-dental)

celebridad complicidad constitucionalidad

celebrity, fame complicity constitutionality

[ancient, † ancienty]

 Now rare in the primary meaning of “a half ”, “a part”, “a portion”, English moiety has found renewed life in anthropology as “Either of two kinship groups based on unilateral descent that together make up a tribe or society”.

T4311.indb 66

8/31/07 6:42:54 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

credibilidad crueldad debilidad dignidad discontinuidad disparidad divinidad electricidad entidad extremidad fraternidad generalidad generosidad hostilidad humanidad humedad imposibilidad inferioridad infinidad ingenuidad integridad legalidad maldad maternidad mediocridad monstruosidad moralidad nacionalidad necesidad oscuridad /obsparcialidad paridad paternidad personalidad pluralidad popularidad posibilidad posteridad prioridad

T4311.indb 67



credibility cruelty debility, weakness dignity, rank discontinuity disparity divinity electricity entity extremity, limb fraternity generality (incl. “the majority”) generosity hostility humanity, mankind, humaneness, humanities (pl.) humidity, moisture, dampness impossibility inferiority infinity ingenuousness, naiveté integrity legality wickedness, maliciousness maternity, motherhood mediocrity monstrosity morality nationality necessity darkness, obscurity partiality parity paternity, fatherhood personality plurality, diversity popularity possibility posterity priority

8/31/07 6:42:54 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

probabilidad profundidad publicidad puntualidad radiactividad realidad regularidad relatividad religiosidad responsabilidad senilidad serenidad sexualidad simplicidad sociedad solemnidad solidaridad superioridad tonalidad tranquilidad trinidad trivialidad unidad uniformidad universalidad universidad vaguedad vanidad verdad viabilidad visibilidad volatilidad

probability depth, profundity publicity, advertising punctuality radioactivity reality regularity relativity religiosity, religiousness responsibility senility serenity sexuality simplicity society solemnity solidarity superiority tonality tranquillity trinity triviality unity uniformity universality university vagueness, imprecision vanity, conceit truth, verity viability, feasibility visibility volatility

. Words Ending in -tud These frequently correspond to English words ending in -tude. The most commonly used words are probably: acritud actitud

T4311.indb 68

acridity, acrimony attitude, posture

[† acritude]

8/31/07 6:42:54 AM

“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S

amplitud aptitud beatitud decrepitud disimilitud exactitud gratitud inexactitud ingratitud inquietud juventud lasitud latitud laxitud lentitud longitud magnitud multitud plenitud pulcritud quietud rectitud senectud similitud solicitud vicisitud virtud

amplitude, breadth, spaciousness aptitude beatitude, blessedness decrepitude dissimilitude, dissimilarity exactitude, precision, accuracy gratitude inexactitude, inexactness, inaccuracy ingratitude, ungratefulness inquietude, worry, restlessness youth lassitude, weariness latitude laxity, laxness slowness length, longitude magnitude multitude plenitude, fullness neatness, tidiness, cleanliness quietude, stillness, tranquillity rectitude, honesty, straightness senectitude (old age) similitude, similarity ( semejanza) request, application (form), solicitude vicissitude virtue, quality, capacity



[juvenile]

[lento ]

[pulchritude]

A relatively small number of Spanish words that “should” end in -tud instead end in -dumbre, e.g., certidumbre, corresponding to English certitude (see Section ., no. ).

 Lento means “slow” in both Spanish and English, though in English it is restricted to a musical sense (cf. also English lentamente and lentissimo).

T4311.indb 69

8/31/07 6:42:55 AM

SEC TION . 

“Learned” Greek Words

Classical Latin had a large repertoire of words taken from Greek. This base was added to substantially in the early Christian era and again during the Renaissance. Some Greek words passed to Spanish directly, most via Latin. Almost without exception, if an English word is recognizably “Greek”, it has an equally recognizable counterpart in Spanish with identical (or at least very similar) meaning. The passage from Greek to Spanish was anything but chaotic (caótico). The principal noncatastrophic orthographical metamorphoses, at least metaphorically (metafóricamente), of the Hellenic lexicon (léxico helénico) were: (a) Y became Spanish i (b) PH, CH, RH, TH became Spanish f, c, r, t (c) MPH became Spanish nf (d) S  consonant became Spanish es  consonant (see Section .)

Y S i

abyss(m)us

abismo abismal

crystallus

cristal cristalizar cristalización cristalino ciclo cíclico ciclismo ciclista

cyclus

abysm, abyss abysmal (unfathomable, enormous) crystal, glass, windowpane (to) crystallize crystallization crystalline, transparent cycle cyclical cycling cyclist

 Latin y corresponds to Greek u, whose pronunciation over time changed from [u] to [y]— essentially a “rounded” i, as in French u or German ü—to [i]. It is with this last value that “classical” Greek words are generally pronounced in Spanish and the other Romance languages and in English, while German has preserved the [y] pronunciation. Some Spanish words have maintained the “original” u (e.g., tufo vs. tifus in Annex D); also English cumin and cube (Spanish comino and cubo).

T4311.indb 70

8/31/07 6:42:55 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

cylindrus cynicus dynastia etymologia gyrare

hyaena hybrida hygieina hyperbola hyperbole hypothesis

hystera (“womb”) idyllium lyra

myopia

mysterium mythologia

odyssea olympicus

T4311.indb 71

ciclón reciclar reciclaje cilindro cilíndrico cínico (adj. & n.) cinismo dinastía etimología girar gira giro girasol hiena híbrido higiene (f.) higiénico hipérbola hipérbole (f.) hipótesis hipotético hipotecar hipoteca histeria histérico idilio idílico lira lírica lírico miopía miope misterio misterioso mitología mitológico mito odisea olímpico



cyclone (to) recycle, (to) retrain recycling, retraining cylinder cylindrical cynical, cynic cynicism dynasty etymology (to) gyrate, (to) turn, (to) spin excursion, tour (e.g., musicians) gyration, change in direction, money order girasol, sunflower hyena hybrid hygiene hygienic, sanitary hyperbola (geometric figure) hyperbole (exaggerated statement) hypothesis hypothetical (to) hypothecate, (to) mortgage mortgage hysteria ( histerismo) hysterical, hysteric (m./f.) idyll, romance, love affair idyllic lyre lyric poetry lyrical, lyric myopia, nearsightedness myopic, myope (nearsighted person—m./f.) mystery mysterious mythology mythological myth odyssey Olympic

8/31/07 6:42:55 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

paralysis pyramidem syllaba syllabus symbiosis symbolum

symmetria

sympathia

symptoma

olimpiada, -íada parálisis paralizar pirámide (f.) sílaba sílabo simbiosis símbolo simbólico simbolismo simbolizar simetría simétrico asimetría asimétrico simpatía simpático

syncope

síntoma (m.) sintomático síncope

syndicatus

sindicato

syndrome synonymus synthesis syntheticus systema typhon tyrannus

síndrome sinónimo (adj. & n.) síntesis sintético sistema (m.) tifón tirano tiranía tiránico

Olympiad, Olympics (pl.) paralysis (to) paralyze pyramid syllable syllabus symbiosis symbol symbolic symbolism (to) symbolize symmetry symmetric, symmetrical asymmetry asymmetric, asymmetrical sympathy, congeniality likable, congenial, sympathetic (music, physiology) symptom symptomatic syncope (med.), fainting spell, blackout syndicate (association), labor union syndrome synonymous, synonym synthesis synthetic system typhoon tyrant (also tyrannical) tyranny tyrannical

PH S f

apostrophe apostrophus asphaltus

T4311.indb 72

apóstrofe (m./f.) apóstrofo asfalto asfaltar

apostrophe (rhetorical) apostrophe (punctuation) asphalt (to) pave with asphalt

8/31/07 6:42:56 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

asphyxia atmosphaera atrophia blasphemare catastrophe diaphanus diaphragma elephantem ephemeros epitaphium euphemismos euphoria geographia hemisphaerium metamorphosis metaphora nympha paraphrasis peripheria phaenomenon phantasia phantasma pharmacia pharos

pharynx phasis philanthropia phil  ateleia philologia philosophia

phobia

T4311.indb 73

asfixia atmósfera atmosférico atrofia blasfemar catástrofe (f.) catastrófico diáfano diafragma (m.) elefante efímero epitafio eufemismo euforia geografía hemisferio metamorfosis metáfora ninfa paráfrasis parafrasear periferia periférico fenómeno fenomenal fantasía fantástico fantasma (m.) farmacia faro farol farola faringe (f.) fase (f.) filantropía filatelia filología filosofía filosófico filósofo fobia



asphyxia, suffocation atmosphere atmospheric atrophy (to) blaspheme, (to) curse catastrophe catastrophic diaphanous, clear, transparent diaphragm elephant ephemeral epitaph euphemism euphoria geography hemisphere metamorphosis metaphor nymph paraphrase (to) paraphrase periphery peripheral phenomenon phenomenal fantasy fantastic phantasm, phantom (fantom), ghost pharmacy pharos (lighthouse), headlight lantern, streetlamp large streetlamp (e.g., highway) pharynx phase philanthropy philately (stamp collecting) philology philosophy philosophical philosopher phobia

8/31/07 6:42:56 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

phoenix phosphorus phrasis phrenesis phreneticus physica

physiognomia physiologia propheta

sema  phoros sphaera sphinx (acc. sphingem) tele  phone

trophaeum

xenofobia fénix fósforo fosforescente frase (f.) frenesí frenético física físico metafísica fisonomía fisiología profeta (m.) profecía profético profetizar semáforo esfera esfinge (f.)

xenophobia phoenix phosphorus, match (for igniting) phosphorescent phrase, sentence frenzy frenetic, frantic, frenzied physics physical, physique (m.), physicist (m./f.) metaphysics physiognomy, features, face physiology prophet prophecy prophetic (to) prophesy semaphore, traffic light (stoplight) sphere, dial or face (e.g., watch) sphinx

teléfono telefónico guía telefónica telefonista telefonear trofeo

telephone telephonic, telephone (adj.) telephone book telephone operator (to) telephone ( llamar por teléfono) trophy

CH S c (or qu ), RH S r, TH S t

aestheticus amphitheatrum anaesthesia anthologia antipathia

estético estética anfiteatro anestesia anestésico antología antipatía

aesthetic / esthetic aesthetics / esthetics amphitheater, dress circle anesthesia anesthetic anthology antipathy, dislike

 The c changes to qu when followed by e or i (see Section ., no. ), as in quimera, quirúrgico, monarquía, oligarquía, psique. Cirugía and cirujano (like English surgery and surgeon) represent a more “popular” evolution.

T4311.indb 74

8/31/07 6:42:56 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

antipático archaicus athleta

autochthon bibliotheca catholicus chaos character charisma chimaera chirurgia

chorus

christus chronicus

diarrhea dichotomia

arcaico atleta (m./f.) atlético atletismo autóctono (adj. & n.) biblioteca católico caos carácter carisma (m.) quimera quimérico cirugía cirujano quirúrgico quirófano  coro coral () coral  () Cristo crónico crónica cronista cronología cronológico anacronismo anacrónico diarrea dicotomía

unpleasant, disagreeable, antipathetic archaic athlete athletic track and field, athletics (UK) autochthonous (indigenous), autochthon library, bookcase Catholic, catholic (universal) chaos character (pl. caracteres ) charisma illusion, pipe dream, chimera chimeric(al) surgery surgeon surgical operating room, surgical amphitheater chorus, choir choral, chorale (f.) coral Christ chronic, long-standing chronicle, article (newspaper) chronicler, reporter chronology chronological anachronism anachronistic diarrhea dichotomy



[bible]

 Carácter is one of only three words in Spanish in which the stressed syllable of the plural is not the same as in the singular: ca•rác•ter versus ca•rac•te•res. (The others are es•pé•ci•men [pl. es•pe•cí•me•nes] and ré•gi•men [pl. re•gí•me•nes].)  Th is arose as a cross between quirúrgico and diáfano (“diaphanous”), referring to the fact that the transparent windows of the surgical amphitheater permitted others to observe the operation from outside.  Th is word has a different origin from the musical forms, coming from Greek korallion (Latin corallium).

T4311.indb 75

8/31/07 6:42:57 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

diphthongus echo enthusiasmus

diptongo eco entusiasmo entusiasta entusiasmar

epocha ethnicus euthanasia labyrinthus marathon mathematica

mechanicus

pantheon

mecánico mecánica mecanismo mecanizar mecanización melancolía melancólico método metódico monarca (m.) monarquía monárquico oligarquía oligárquico oligarca (m.) ornitología ortografía ortopedia ortopédico panteón

parenthesis psyche

paréntesis (m.) psique (f.)

melancholia methodus monarcha

oligarchia

ornithologia orthographia ortho  paideia

T4311.indb 76

entusiasmado (p.p.) época étnico etnia eutanasia laberinto maratón (m./f.) matemática matemático

diphthong echo enthusiasm enthusiastic, enthusiast or fan (m./f.) (to) provoke enthusiasm, (to) captivate enthused, enthusiastic epoch, era, time ethnic ethnic group euthanasia labyrinth, maze marathon mathematics (gen. pl.) mathematical, mathematician (m./f.) mechanical, mechanic (m./f.) mechanics (science) mechanism (to) mechanize mechanization melancholy (n.), melancholia melancholic, melancholy (adj.) method methodical monarch monarchy monarchist, royalist oligarchy oligarchic, oligarchical oligarch ornithology spelling, orthography orthopedics orthopedic pantheon, Pantheon, (family) tomb, mausoleum parenthesis psyche

8/31/07 6:42:57 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

rhapsodia rhetorica rheumaticus

rhinoceros (-ontem) rhododendron rhythmus

technologia

tele  pathia theatrum theologia theoria therapia thronus

psiquiatra (m./f.) psiquiatría rapsodia retórica retórico reumático reuma, reúma (m./f.) rinoceronte

psychiatry rhapsody rhetoric rhetorical, rhetorician (m./f.) rheumatic rheumatism ( reumatismo)

rododendro ritmo rítmico rima  rimar tecnología técnica técnico telepatía teatro teología teoría terapia trono entronizar

rhododendron rhythm rhythmic, rhythmical rhyme, short poem (pl.) (to) rhyme, (to) versify technology technique, technics technical, technician (m./f.) telepathy theater theology theory therapy throne (to) enthrone



psychiatrist

rhinoceros

MPH S nf

amphibios emphasis

symphonia

anfibio énfasis (m.) enfático enfatizar sinfonía

amphibious, amphibian (m.) emphasis emphatic (to) emphasize symphony

 The ultimate origin of rima / rhyme is debated. Some see it as representing a “popular” deformation of rhythmus, others as having a Germanic source, with the English spelling subsequently being influenced by rhythm (rime remains an accepted variant of rhyme).

T4311.indb 77

8/31/07 6:42:57 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

Note that Greek -ia (and Latin -ia) has often become English -y: dynasty, pharmacy, etc. Similarly: aristocracia autopsia controversia democracia energía epilepsia genealogía modestia orgía parodia penuria

aristocracy autopsy controversy, debate democracy energy epilepsy genealogy modesty orgy parody penury

“Post-Classical” (non-Greek) examples include: artillería batería lotería

artillery battery (elec., mil., music: percussion), kitchen utensils lottery

In about half of such words, the stress accent falls on the -i (an•to•lo•gí•a, sin•fo•ní•a), which therefore has a written accent, while in the remainder the stress is on the preceding syllable and the -ia is pronounced as a diphthong (far•ma•cia, pe•ri•fe•ria). ps became s in psalmus

salmo

psalm

but has remained in words like pseudónimo, psoriasis, psiquiatría, psicoanálisis, psicología, and psicopático. These are also frequently found without the initial p. Among the more common Greek endings are the following: () -logía / -lógico / -logo () -grafía / -gráfico / -grafo () -sis / -tis () -ema / -oma () -tico / -tica

T4311.indb 78

8/31/07 6:42:58 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS



. -logía / -lógico / -logo The standard pattern is shown below corresponding to English biology and geology: the Spanish noun (feminine) ends in -logía, the adjective in -lógico (feminine: -lógica), and the “performer” in -logo (feminine: -loga). biología geología

biológico geológico

biólogo geólogo

biology geology

biologic(al) geologic(al)

biologist geologist

Note that in Spanish the word stress falls on a different syllable in each of the three words: for the adjective and the performer, the same syllable is stressed as in English, while for the “subject”, the stress is moved forward two syllables:

geología geológico geólogo

Spanish

English

ge•o•lo•gí•a ge•o•ló•gi•co ge•ó•lo•go

ge•ol•o•gy ge•o•log•i•cal ge•ol•o•gist

There are several words for which the performer is a -logista rather than a -logo / -loga: apologista ecologista  etimologista genealogista mineralogista

apologist ecologist etymologist genealogist mineralogist

Note that Spanish apología makes use of the secondary English definition “formal justification or defense”, rather than the more common “acknowledgment expressing regret or asking pardon for a fault or offense”. Hence an apologista is “one who defends by argument”, rather than “one who offers or asks for forgiveness”.



Ecólogo (-loga) also exists, but is relatively rare. Spanish in fact conserves the “original” meaning: the fi rst use in English with the sense of “expressing regret” is attributed to Shakespeare ().  Th is is the defi nition of English apologist as well, where the emphasis is on defending and justifying—an “apologist for slavery” defended the practice rather than asking for forgiveness. 

T4311.indb 79

8/31/07 6:42:58 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

Other words following the biología—biológico—biólogo pattern include: analogía  antropología arqueología astrología cardiología cosmología criminología dermatología embriología entomología espeleología fi lología fisiología geología ginecología ideología meteorología odontología paleontología patología psicología radiología sociología tautología tecnología teología terminología toxicología urología zoología

analogy anthropology archaeology astrology cardiology cosmology criminology dermatology embryology entomology speleology philology physiology geology gynecology ideology meteorology odontology, dentistry paleontology pathology psychology radiology sociology tautology technology theology terminology toxicology urology zoology

As in English, there are a few -logo words referring not to a performer but to an object: catálogo decálogo diálogo

catalog(ue), list Decalog(ue), Ten Commandments dialog(ue)

 Análogo means “analogous” (adj.) rather than “one who makes analogies”, while analógico means “analog”.

T4311.indb 80

8/31/07 6:42:58 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

epílogo monólogo prólogo



epilog(ue), recapitulation monolog(ue) prolog(ue), preface

Two groups of words follow a similar pattern, but end with -gogo rather than -logo: demagogia pedagogía

demagógico pedagógico

demagogo pedagogo

demagogy pedagogy

demagogic(al) demagogue pedagogic(al) pedagogue

Note that demagogia (de•ma•go•gia) has a different stress compared to pedagogía and the -logía words, while both demagogo (de•ma•go•go) and pedagogo (pe•da•go•go) are stressed differently from the -logo words.

. -grafía / -gráfico / -grafo This is analogous to -logía / -lógico / -logo: the Spanish noun (feminine) ends in -grafía, the adjective in -gráfico (feminine: -gráfica), and the performer in -grafo (feminine: -grafa). The standard pattern is shown below corresponding to English biography and geography: biografía geografía

biográfico geográfico

biógrafo geógrafo

biography geography

biographic(al) geographic(al)

biographer geographer

There are a few cases where -grafo refers to an instrument rather than a person, e.g., (electro)cardiógrafo cinematógrafo telégrafo

(electro)cardiograph movie projector, movie theater, cinematograph telegraph

The operator of a telégrafo is a telegrafista. Other examples following the “normal” pattern include: bibliografía caligrafía cartografía coreografía criptografía 

bibliography calligraphy cartography choreography cryptography

 Criptógrafo (“cryptographer”) doesn’t exist (according to the DRAE and Moliner), but is nonetheless occasionally found.

T4311.indb 81

8/31/07 6:42:58 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

dactilografía fotografía demografía lexicografía mecanografía oceanografía paleografía pornografía taquigrafía

typewriting photography, photograph demography lexicography typewriting ( dactilografía) oceanography paleography pornography stenography, shorthand

[dactylography]

A point of frequent confusion for native English speakers is that a fotógrafo is a “photographer”, not a “photograph”. A “photo” is una fotografía or, more commonly (especially in the spoken language), una foto.

. -sis / -tis Words with -sis and -tis endings are nouns, the vast majority of which are feminine. The only exceptions (i.e., masculines) among commonly used words are the following:  análisis (m.) apocalipsis (m.) énfasis (m.) éxtasis (m.) oasis (m.) paréntesis (m.) psicoanálisis (m.)

analysis apocalypse emphasis ecstasy oasis parenthesis psychoanalysis

The plurals, for both feminines and masculines, are identical to the singulars. Other examples (all feminines) are:

-sis antítesis arteriosclerosis, -esclerosis cirrosis crisis diagnosis ( diagnóstico)

antithesis arteriosclerosis, hardening of the arteries cirrhosis crisis diagnosis (medical)

 In addition, there are a few masculines among the relatively small number of non-Greek -sis / -tis words (see Annex A).

T4311.indb 82

8/31/07 6:42:59 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

diálisis dosis electrólisis génesis hipnosis hipótesis osteoporosis prognosis ( pronóstico) prótesis sinopsis síntesis sobredosis tesis tuberculosis



dialysis dose, dosage electrolysis genesis, origin, Genesis (m., cap.) hypnosis hypothesis osteoporosis prognosis, prognostication prosthesis (med.), prothesis (gram.) synopsis, abstract, summary synthesis overdose thesis tuberculosis

Many of these nouns have corresponding adjectives ending in -tico (no.  below), e.g., antitético, crítico, and hipnótico.

-tis (medical terms, all feminine) apendicitis artritis bronquitis conjuntivitis dermatitis gastritis hepatitis laringitis meningitis sinusitis

appendicitis arthritis bronchitis conjunctivitis dermatitis gastritis hepatitis laryngitis meningitis sinusitis

. -ema / -oma These are nouns, the large majority of which are masculine, in marked contrast to the general Spanish rule that nouns ending in -a are feminine. In the lists below, masculine nouns are shown first.

-ema anatema (m./f.) cinema (m.)

T4311.indb 83

anathema cinema, movie theater

(short form: el cine)

8/31/07 6:42:59 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

dilema (m.) ecosistema (m.) edema (m.) emblema (m.) enema  (m.) enfisema (m.) esquema (m.) fonema (m.) lema (m.) poema (m.) problema (m.) sistema (m.) tema (m.) teorema (m.)

dilemma ecosystem edema (inflammation due to fluid accumulation) emblem enema emphysema scheme, outline, sketch phoneme lemma, motto poem problem system theme theorem

crema diadema estratagema flema gema  —yema

cream diadem (a crown worn as a sign of royalty) stratagem, deception, trick phlegm, calmness, imperturbability gem, precious stone, gemma (bud) —bud, yolk, gemma

-oma aroma (m.) axioma (m.) carcinoma (m.) coma () (m.) cromosoma (m.) diploma (m.) genoma (m.) glaucoma (m.) hematoma (m.)

aroma axiom carcinoma coma chromosome diploma genome glaucoma hematoma, bruise

 There is some confusion concerning the gender of enema: until , the RAE differentiated between the “traditional” enema, which was feminine, and a second defi nition of “astringent and drying substance used on wounds”, which was masculine. Since , all enemas, of whatever type, have (at least according to the RAE) been masculine.  Gem is of Latin rather than Greek origin, coming from Latin gemma (“bud”, hence—due to the similarity in form and color—“precious stone”). Yema is the corresponding “popular” Spanish word.

T4311.indb 84

8/31/07 6:42:59 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS



idioma (m.) melanoma (m.) síntoma (m.)

language melanoma symptom

[idiom]

broma  —abrumar —abrumador coma () —comillas (pl.) goma paloma  poma

joke, jest —(to) overwhelm or crush —overwhelming, crushing, oppressive comma —quotation marks gum, rubber, rubber band, eraser dove, pigeon pome, apple (botanical), perfume box

[bromide]

. -tico / -tica Words ending in -tico are of both Greek and Latin origin. They are almost always masculine adjectives with corresponding feminines ending in -tica. In many cases, they can also be used as nouns, e.g.,

also:

diplomático (adj.) el diplomático (n.m.) la diplomática (n.f.) diplomacia

diplomatic the diplomat (masculine) the diplomat (feminine) diplomacy, tact

Very rarely (e.g., gramático, pronóstico), words ending in -tico are nouns rather than adjectives. A more frequent occurrence is an abstract feminine noun ending in -tica, e.g., acústica. For all of these words there is a written accent on the preceding vowel, e.g., diplomático (pronounced di•plo•má•ti•co). A sampling of these words (adjectives, unless otherwise indicated) is given below: acróstico acuático acústico adriático

acústica (n.f.)

acrostic (adj. & n.m.) aquatic acoustic, acoustics (n.f.) Adriatic

 English bromide and bromine come from Greek bromos (“stench”), while Spanish broma likely comes from a closely related Greek word meaning “rottenness”.  Paloma and poma are of Latin, not Greek, origin.

T4311.indb 85

8/31/07 6:43:00 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

agnóstico alfabético analítico anecdótico antártico antibiótico antidemocrático antiestético antipático antipatriótico antisemítico antiséptico antitético apático apocalíptico apolítico aristocrático aritmético aromático ártico artístico ascético asiático asmático atlántico atlético auténtico autocrático automático báltico caótico característico carismático catedrático (n.m.) cáustico céltico ciático cibernético cosmético

T4311.indb 86

analítica (n.f.)

aritmética (n.f.)

ascética (n.f.)

característica (n.f.) catedrática (n.f.)

ciática (n.f.) cibernética (n.f.) cosmética (n.f.)

agnostic (adj. & n.m./f.) alphabetical analytic, analytical, analytics (n.f.) anecdotal, anecdotic antarctic [the continent is gen. Antártida] antibiotic (adj. & n.m.) undemocratic un(a)esthetic, ugly antipathetic, disagreeable unpatriotic anti-Semitic antiseptic (adj. & n.m.) antithetical, opposing apathetic apocalyptic apolitical aristocratic arithmetical, arithmetic (n.f.) aromatic arctic artistic ascetic, asceticism (n.f.) Asiatic (adj. & n.m./f.), Asian asthmatic (adj. & n.m./f.) Atlantic athletic authentic autocratic automatic Baltic chaotic characteristic (adj. & n.f.) charismatic professor (UK: chair) caustic (adj. & n.m.) Celtic, Celtic language (n.m.) sciatic, sciatica (n.f.) cybernetic, cybernetics (n.f.) cosmetic (adj. & n.m.), cosmetology (n.f.)

8/31/07 6:43:00 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

cósmico críptico crítico

crítica (n.f.)

cromático cuadrático democrático diagnóstico didáctico

didáctica (n.f.)

diurético dogmático doméstico dramático

dramática (n.f.)

drástico eclesiástico elástico emético energético

energética (n.f.)

—enérgico enfático enigmático epiléptico erótico errático escéptico escolástico

escolástica (n.f.)

estadístico

estadística (n.f.)

estático estético estilístico ético exótico

estática (n.f.) estética (n.f.) estilística (n.f.) ética (n.f.)



T4311.indb 87

erótica (n.f.)



cosmic cryptic critical, critic (n.m./f.), critique/ criticism (n.f.) chromatic quadratic democratic diagnostic (adj. & n.m.), diagnosis (n.m.) didactic, educational, didactics (n.f.) diuretic (adj. & n.m.) dogmatic domestic (adj. & n.m./f.) dramatic, dramatist or actor/ actress (n.m./f.), dramatic arts (n.f.) drastic, medicinal purge (n.m.) ecclesiastical, ecclesiastic (n.m.) elastic (adj. & n.m.) emetic (adj. & n.m.) pertaining to energy, science of energy (n.f.) —energetic (possessing or displaying energy) emphatic enigmatic epileptic (adj. & n.m./f.) erotic, erotica (n.f.) wandering, vagrant, erratic skeptical, skeptic (n.m./f.) scholastic (adj. & n.m./f.), Scholasticism (n.f.) statistical, statistician (n.m./f.), statistics (n.f.) static (adj.), statics (n.f.) esthetic (adj.), esthetics (n.f.) stylistic, stylistics (n.f.) ethical, ethics (n.f.) exotic

The Spanish noun for “static” is interferencia or parásitos (“parasites”).

8/31/07 6:43:00 AM



CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY

fanático farmacéutico flemático fonético genético gimnástico gótico (adj. & n.m.)

fonética (n.f.) genética (n.f.) gimnástica (n.f.)

gramático (n.m.)

gramática (n.f.)

hermético hipnótico hipotético informático

informática (n.f.)

lingüístico logístico magnético místico

mística (n.f.)

monolítico narcótico neolítico neumático neurótico numismático

numismática (n.f.)

onomástico

onomástica (n.f.)

óptico

óptica (n.f.)

paleolítico patético patriótico



T4311.indb 88

lingüística (n.f.) logística (n.f.)

fanatical, fanatic (adj. & n.m./f.) pharmaceutical, pharmacist (n.m./f.) phlegmatic, unemotional phonetic, phonetics (n.f.) genetic, genetics (n.f.) gymnastic, gymnastics (n.f.)  Gothic (style, people, language, print) grammarian (n.m./f.), grammar (n.f.) hermetic, airtight hypnotic, sleeping pill (n.m.) hypothetical data processing (adj.), computer expert (n.m./f.), computer science (n.f.) linguistic, linguistics (n.f.) logistical, logistics (n.f.) magnetic mystical, mystic (n.m./f.), mysticism (n.f.) monolithic narcotic (adj. & n.m.) Neolithic (adj. & n.m.) pneumatic, tire (n.m.) neurotic (adj. & n.m./f.) numismatic, numismatist (n.m./f.), numismatics (n.f.) onomastic, onomastics (n.f.), saint’s day (n.f.) optic, optical, optician (n.m./f.), optics (n.f.), optical shop (n.f.) Paleolithic (adj. & n.m.) pathetic patriotic

For “gymnastics”, gimnasia is more common (gimnasio is “gymnasium”).

8/31/07 6:43:00 AM

“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS

peripatético plástico

plástica (n.f.)

poético político

poética (n.f.) política (n.f.)

práctico

práctica (n.f.)

pragmático

pragmática (n.f.)

problemático

problemática (n.f.)

pronóstico (n.m.) quiropráctico (n.m.)

quiropráctica (n.f.)

reumático rústico sarcástico semántico sintético sintomático sistemático socrático táctico teorético transatlántico traumático viático (n.m.)

semántica

táctica (n.f.)



peripatetic (Aristotelian), ridiculous or outlandish plastic (adj. & n.m.), plastic arts (n.f.) poetic, poetics (n.f.) politic, political, in-law, politician (n.m./f.), politics (n.f.), policy (n.f.) practical, practiced (i.e., skillful), harbor pilot (n.m.), practice (n.f.) pragmatic, interpreter of the laws (n.m./f.), pragmatics (n.f.)  problematic, collective problems (n.f.) prognosis, prognostic, prediction chiropractor (n.m./f.), chiropractic (n.f.) rheumatic (adj. & n.m./f.) rustic (adj. & n.m./f.) sarcastic semantic, semantics (n.f.) synthetic symptomatic systematic Socratic tactical, tactician (n.m./f.), tactics (n.f.) speculative, theoretical  transatlantic, (ocean) liner (n.m.) traumatic viaticum, travel allowance

 English peripatetic normally means “walking about from place to place; traveling on foot”, a meaning not shared by Spanish peripatético. Both words maintain the formal (original) definition “of or relating to the philosophy of Aristotle, who conducted discussions while walking about in the Lyceum of ancient Athens”.  See Section ..  Pragmatics means “the study of language as it is used in a given context”. Spanish pragmática (n.f.) has a second defi nition as well, analogous to that of English pragmatic sanction: “an edict or a decree issued by a sovereign that becomes part of the fundamental law of the land”.  Teórico is far more common, as the use of teorético in the sense of “theoretical” is widely viewed as an anglicismo.  Latin viaticum is also the origin of both English voyage and Spanish viaje.

T4311.indb 89

8/31/07 6:43:01 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

PA R T I I I

P O P U L A R VO C A B U L A RY: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

Consider the following lists of words: Language 

Language 

Language 

English

viejo escuela verde bueno puente público libertad harina seguro

vieux école vert bon pont public liberté farine sûr

vecchio scuola verde buono ponte pubblico libertà farina sicuro

old school green good bridge public liberty flour, farina sure, secure

Even if one has not already studied a Romance language, it is not too difficult to guess that Language  is Spanish, Language  is French, and Language  is Italian. All languages have a certain “feel” to them, and the Romance languages are no exceptions. The aim of Part III is to further develop this inherent “feel” for the nature of Spanish so that it can effectively be used as a tool in the acquisition of new vocabulary.

T4311.indb 91

8/31/07 6:43:01 AM

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

S E C T I O N  .

Addition of “Helping” e: esnob ⴝ snob

The Vulgar Latin grammarians noted an inconsistency in the Latin phonetic system. In the interior of a word, the combination s  consonant was always divided between different syllables and was never pronounced as a single “sound”. Thus,

justitia monstrum

jus•ti•ti•a mons•trum

Spanish

English

jus•ti•cia mons•truo

jus•tice mon• ster

As the example shows, this is not a feature of English, where in many words like monster the consonant combination st is pronounced jointly. If a syllable within a word could never begin with s  consonant, why should it be any different at the beginning of a word? The Vulgar Latins decided that there was no good reason for such difference, and that what was required was the addition of a “helping” (prothetic) vowel to permit s and the following consonant to be placed in separate syllables:

spi•na S es•pi•na

Spanish

English

espina

thorn, spine

Italian subsequently gave up the initial e, Spanish has maintained it, while French has generally eliminated the s, which was the justification for the e in the first place. Latin

Spanish

French

Italian

English

scala scutum spiritus sponsa status

escala escudo espíritu esposa estado

échelle écu esprit épouse état

scala scudo spirito sposa stato

scale escutcheon, shield spirit spouse, wife state

Examples: esbelto escala

T4311.indb 93

svelte (slender, graceful) ladder, scale, proportion, port of call, stop (airplane)

8/31/07 6:43:01 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

—escalera —escalar —escalador —escalada —escalón —escalafón escalpelo escama —escamoso escándalo —escandaloso —escandalizar Escandinavia —escandinavo escandir escápula escarbar escarlata —escarlatina escarnecer —escarmentar —escarmiento escarpa —escarpado escatológico () —escatología () —escatología () —escatológico () escayola escena —escenario —escénico escéptico (adj. & n.) —escepticismo esclavo —esclavitud

T4311.indb 94

—staircase, stairs —(to) climb, (to) scale —(mountain) climber —climb, rapid increase, rise, escalade —step (of a stair), stepping stone —roster of employees (by rank) scalpel scale (of fish, snake), flake (of soap), squama —scaly, flaky, squamous scandal —scandalous —(to) scandalize Scandinavia —Scandinavian (to) scan (verse) scapula (shoulder blade) (to) scrape, (to) scratch, (to) dig into scarlet —scarlatina, scarlet fever (to) mock, (to) ridicule —(to) punish severely, (to) learn one’s lesson —lesson, punishment scarp, steep slope, escarpment —steep, sheer, craggy scatological —scatology —eschatology —eschatological plaster, plaster cast, scagliola scene, stage —stage, scene, setting —scenic (of or relating to the stage) skeptical, skeptic —skepticism slave —slavery

[echelon]

[scarify]

[scorn]

[fish scale] [scenario]

(see appendix)

8/31/07 6:43:02 AM

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB  SNOB

—esclavizar —eslabón —eslavo —Eslovaquia —eslovaco —Eslovenia —esloveno esclerosis —esclerosis múltiple esclusa escoba —escobilla Escocia —escocés (-esa) escolar (adj. & n.) —escuela escorbuto escoria —El Escorial escribir —escriba (m.) —escribano —escrito (p.p.) —por escrito —escritor —escritorio —escritura escrúpulo —escrupuloso —sin escrúpulos escrutar —escrutinio —escudriñar 



T4311.indb 95



—(to) enslave —link (of a chain) —Slav —Slovakia —Slovak —Slovenia —Slovene, Slovenian sclerosis —multiple sclerosis (canal) lock, sluice, sluice gate broom —brush Scotland —Scottish scholastic, school (adj.), student, pupil —school scurvy scoria (slag, dross, lava fragments) —Escorial (monastery & palace near Madrid) (to) write —scribe —scrivener, notary —writing (report, etc.), writ (law) —in writing —writer, author —desk, office —handwriting, Scripture (cap., freq. pl.) scrupule —scrupulous —unscrupulous ( inescrupuloso) (to) scrutinize, (to) count votes —scrutiny, (official) vote count —(to) scrutinize

[scopula]

[scorbutic]

[scribble]

[script]

[scriptorium]

Formerly escrudiñar.

8/31/07 6:43:02 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

escuadra —escuadrón escuálido escudo —escudo de armas —escudar —escudero esculcar escultura —escultor —esculpir escupir —escupidera esfera esgrimir —esgrima —escaramuza esmalte —esmalte de uñas —esmaltar esmoquin ( Eng.) esnob ( Eng.) espacio —espacioso —despacio esparcir —esparcimiento espátula especia —especie

triangle (for drawing), squad, squadron, fleet —squadron (military)  skinny, emaciated, squalid shield, escutcheon, escudo —coat of arms —(to) shield —squire, shield-bearer (to) delve into, (to) spy sculpture —sculptor —(to) sculpt, (to) engrave (to) spit —spittoon, cuspidor, urinal (Amer.) sphere, dial or face (e.g., watch) (to) brandish, (to) fence —fencing, swordplay —skirmish, dispute enamel —nail polish —(to) enamel, (to) adorn

tuxedo, dinner jacket snob space —spacious, slow, deliberate —slowly ( lentamente) (to) scatter, (to) spread, (to) amuse —scattering, recreation, leisure activity spatula spice —species, kind, sort

[skulk]

[scrimmage] [Scaramouch] [smelt]

[smoking]

[of space] [sparse]



An army escuadrón is generally larger than an escuadra; the former is commanded by a capitán (captain), the latter by a cabo (corporal).  Scrimmage was previously scrimish, itself a “deformation” of skirmish. Thus, both Spanish esgrimir and English scrimmage have “moved” the r from its “original” place (cf. Section ., no. ).

T4311.indb 96

8/31/07 6:43:02 AM

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB  SNOB

especial —especialidad —especialista —especializar específico —especificación —especificar espécimen (pl. especímenes) espectáculo —espectacular —espectador espectro especular —especulación —especulativo —especulador esperma (m./f.) espeso —espesor —espesura espina —espina dorsal —espina bífida —espinal —espinazo —espino espiral (adj. & n.f.) espíritu —espiritual esplendor esponja —esponjoso espontáneo —espontaneidad esporádico



special —specialty —specialist —(to) specialize specific —specification —(to) specify specimen spectacle, show —spectacular —spectator specter, spectrum (to) speculate (meditate, think about, buy and sell) —speculation —speculative —speculator sperm, spermaceti  thick, dense —thickness —denseness, thicket, dense wood thorn, fish bone, splinter, spine (bot.) —spine, backbone, spinal column —spina bifida —spinal —spine, backbone —hawthorn, thornbush spiral spirit —spiritual splendor sponge —spongy spontaneous —spontaneity sporadic

[inspissate]



Spermaceti is a white waxy substance found in the head of sperm whales (the whale name arising from either a deficient anatomical understanding or a somewhat off-color sense of humor).

T4311.indb 97

8/31/07 6:43:03 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

espuma —espumoso esqueleto esquema (m.) —esquemático esquí —esquí alpino / de fondo —esquiar esquimal (adj. & n.) esquina esquizofrenia —esquizofrénico estaca —estacada —dejar (s.o.) en la estacada estampa —estampar —estampida —estampido —estampilla estanco —estancar —estanque —tanque ( Eng.) estelar —estrella —estrella de mar

foam, froth, lather, spume —frothy, foamy, sparkling (wine), spumous skeleton, framework outline, sketch, scheme —schematic ski, skiing —alpine skiing / cross-country skiing —(to) ski Eskimo, Eskimo language (m.) corner schizophrenia —schizophrenic (adj. & n.) stake, post —picket fence, stockade ( Sp.) —(to) leave someone in the lurch print, engraving, likeness or image —(to) print, (to) stamp, (to) engrave —stampede —loud noise (as from an explosion) —rubber stamp, postage stamp (Amer.) watertight (adj.), tobacconist (n.) —(to) stanch, (to) monopolize (block the free sale of) —pond, basin, reservoir

[shin, chine]

[staunch]

[tank ]

stellar —star —starfish

 English tank (“container”) comes, in the fi rst instance, from one of the languages of India, though it has also been influenced by the Romance word. It may well be the case that the Indian word comes from the Romance one via the Portuguese, who were India’s fi rst European colonizers.  Estrella likely comes from a “mixing” of astro (originally from Greek) with Latin stella (“star”).

T4311.indb 98

8/31/07 6:43:03 AM

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB  SNOB

—estrella fugaz —estrellar —constelación —destellar —destello estéril —esterilidad —esterilizar —esterilización (libra) esterlina estibador —estibar estigma (m.) —estigmatizar estilo —estilográfica estímulo —estimular —estimulante (adj. & n.) estipendio estipular —estipulación estirpe (f.) —extirpar estoico (adj. & n.) estola estoque —estocada estrangular estrategia —estratégico —estratega (m./f.) —estratagema estrato

T4311.indb 99

—shooting star —(to) fi ll with stars, (to) smash to pieces, (to) fail —constellation —(to) twinkle, (to) sparkle, (to) flash —flash (of light), twinkle sterile (barren, unproductive, bacteria-free) —sterility —(to) sterilize —sterilization (pound) sterling longshoreman, stevedore —(to) stow, (to) load or unload, (to) stuff stigma (incl. bot. and biol.), stigmata (pl.) —(to) stigmatize style (incl. bot.), stylus, fashion —fountain pen stimulus, stimulation —(to) stimulate, (to) encourage —stimulating, stimulant stipend (to) stipulate —stipulation, condition ancestry, lineage, stirps —(to) extirpate, (to) remove, (to) eradicate stoical, stoic stole rapier, sword —stab, thrust (to) strangle, (to) strangulate strategy —strategic —strategist —stratagem stratum, stratus (cloud), layer



(“with stars”) (unrelated)

[constipate]

[ex  stirps]

[stoke, stock]

[street]

8/31/07 6:43:03 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

—estratosfera —estrado estría —estriado estridente estrofa estructura —estructural —estructurar —infraestructura estudiante (m./f.) —estudiar —estudio —estudioso (adj. & n.) estupefaciente estupendo —estupor estúpido (adj. & n.) —estupidez

—stratosphere —dais (raised platform), halls of justice (pl.) groove, stretch mark (skin), stria —striated strident stanza, strophe structure —structural —(to) structure, (to) organize —infrastructure student —(to) study —study (act, place), studio (workshop, apartment) —studious, specialist stupefacient (drug), narcotic stupendous —stupor, astonishment stupid, foolish (or such a person) —stupidity

Appendix On Slavs and Slaves The name used by the east European Slavs to describe themselves was taken into Medieval Latin in two different forms: sclavus and slavus. It came to mean “slave” as well as “Slav”, the association arising from the the large number of Slavic slaves in both the eastern Roman Empire and the Germanic territories. Eventually, sclavus specialized in “slave”, and slavus in “Slav”, a distinction carried on in modern Spanish and in other Romance languages, as well as in German (but not in Dutch). It was also the case in English (sclave) until the sixteenth century, when the “unnatural” (for English) scl combination was reduced to sl (as happened also in slander, slice, and sluice), leaving slave and Slav to be distinguished only by their respective vowels.

Dutch German Spanish

T4311.indb 100

Slav

slave

Slaaf Slawe eslavo

slaaf Sklave esclavo

8/31/07 6:43:03 AM

ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB  SNOB

French Italian

slave slavo



esclave schiavo

In “mainstream” Italian, sclavus became schiavo (pronounced [skyavo]), while in the Venetian dialect a shortened variant, ciao (pronounced [chao]), came to be used as an informal greeting or farewell in the sense of “I am your humble servant”. Th is was then exported to Spanish, where chao is used only as a farewell (¡ Adiós ! ¡ Hasta luego ! ¡ Chao !). Hence the correspondence: chao

T4311.indb 101

ciao, adios

8/31/07 6:43:04 AM

SEC TION . 

Initial f S h: higo ⴝ fig

The presence of (unpronounced) h arising from Latin f is one of the most distinctive features of Spanish, setting it apart not only from French and Italian but also from the other Iberian Romances (Portuguese/Galician, Catalan). Latin

Spanish

Portuguese French

Italian

English

falco(n) farina ficus

halcón harina higo

falcão farinha figo

falco farina fico

falcon farina, flour fig

faucon farine figue

Examples include: fabulari

hablar habla hablador (adj. & n.) fábula fabuloso

facere

hacer deshacer hacia hacienda rehacer hecho (p.p.) cohechar cohecho quehacer facsímil, facsímile faena ( Cat.) faenar

facies

T4311.indb 102

haz () (f.)

(to) speak, (to) talk speech, language, dialect talkative, gossipy, chatterbox fable fabulous (barely credible, extraordinary) (to) do, (to) make (to) undo, (to) take apart toward ranch, hacienda, public finance (to) redo, (to) remake fact (to) bribe bribe, bribery chore, task, occupation facsimile task, toil, dirty trick (to) fish (at sea), (to) slaughter (animals), (to) toil face, surface (e.g., of leaf, fabric)

[fabulate] [fable] [confabulator]

[factory] [defeat] [face to]

[refect] [confect] [confetti] (que  hacer) (fac  similar)

8/31/07 6:43:04 AM

INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG

faex (pl. faeces) faminem (acc.)

farina

fartus

hez (pl. heces) hambre (f.) hambriento famélico harina harina de otro costal harinoso harto hartar infarto

fascis

haz ()

fastidium

hastío

fastidioso fastidio hado hada cuento de hadas hada madrina hembra (n.) femenino fémina (n.) feminismo feminista heno

weariness, annoyance, boredom (to) annoy, (to) weary, (to) cause disgust (to) annoy, (to) tire, (to) bore annoying, tiresome annoyance, nuisance fate, destiny fairy, fay fairy tale fairy godmother female (animal) feminine, female (adj.) female (human) feminism feminist hay

fiebre del heno

hay fever

hastiar fastidiar

fatum

femina

fenum

feces (pl.), dreg(s) hunger, famine hungry, famished hungry, famished, scrawny flour, farina “horse of a different color”  mealy, farinaceous fed up, full (to) satiate, (to) glut, (to) get fed up infarct, heart attack ( ataque cardíaco) bundle, sheaf, (light) beam



[farci] [farce]

[fascia, fascist] [fastidious]

[fennel, sainfoin]



Literally “flour from a different sack”. Latin fata became fée in French (and hada in Spanish), while faerie (Modern French féerie) was “fairyland”. The French words were imported into English as fay and fairy, with their original meanings intact; subsequently, fairy altered its sense to that of fay, its original meaning being assumed by the new term fairyland (which fi rst appeared as “Fairy Land” in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream). English faerie (an alternative spelling of fairy) maintains the original defi nition of “land or realm of the fairies”. 

T4311.indb 103

8/31/07 6:43:04 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

ferire

herir herido (p.p.)

ferrum fervere

fibra ficus figicare

herida hierro hervir hervor agua hirviendo hirviente  fervor ferviente efervescencia hebra higo higuera hincar hacer hincapié en ahínco finca

filia filictum filius filum

hija helecho hijo hilo hilar hilandero hilera retahíla

findere

hender hendidura

(to) wound, (to) injure, (to) hurt injured person (m./f.), casualty (m./f.) wound, injury iron, brand (mark on animal) (to) boil boiling (n.) boiling water boiling (adj.) fervor fervent effervescence, agitation thread, fiber, grain (of wood) fig fig tree (to) thrust, (to) drive in(to) (to) drive the foot (pie) in, (to) emphasize eagerness, determination, zeal rural property, country estate, finca daughter fern son thread (to) spin (wool, silk, spiderweb, etc.) spinner, spinster (in the original sense) row, line (monotonous) list or series of things (to) crack, (to) split crack, fissure

[interfere]

[ferrous]

[fervor] [fervent]

[fix, affix]

[filial] [bot. filix] [filament]

[fission]

 Hirviente is in danger of extinction, having been largely replaced by the present participle hirviendo; thus, agua hirviendo is today far more common than agua hirviente.

T4311.indb 104

8/31/07 6:43:05 AM

INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG

fixus, fictus foetor

folia forma formica

hito hedor heder fétido hoja hojear horma hormiga

boundary stone, milestone stench, fetor (to) stink fetid, foul leaf, sheet (to) leaf through form (mold), shoe tree ant

hormigueo

tickling or tingling sensation (pins and needles) anthill, ant nest anteater (to) have pins and needles, (to) swarm corn flour mush, nougat (pl.) concrete reinforced concrete cement mixer (machine or truck) beautiful, lovely, handsome beauty, handsomeness pit, grave, valley hole (e.g., golf), pit (to) flee (to) frighten or chase away fleeting, fugacious fugitive escapee, fugitive (from justice), military deserter smoke, fume, airs or conceit (pl.) (to) fume, (to) smoke, (to) steam (to) smoke (a cigarette) smoker

hormiguero oso hormiguero hormiguear hormigo  hormigón hormigón armado hormigonera formosus fovea fugere

fumus

hermoso hermosura hoya hoyo huir ahuyentar fugaz fugitivo (adj. & n.) prófugo humo humear fumar fumador



[fixed]

[folio]

[formic acid]

[Formosa] [fovea] [fugitive] [fugue]

 Hormigo apparently is due to the similarity between grains of flour bubbling in boiling corn flour mush and the bustling of ants in an ant nest. Hormigón then followed naturally due to the resemblance in form between mush and concrete.

T4311.indb 105

8/31/07 6:43:05 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

fundere

fundus fungus furca

furnus furtum

hundir hundimiento hondo profundo hongo horca ahorcar horquilla

fuscus

horno hurto hurtar a hurtadillas furtivo (adj. & n.) hosco

fustigare

hostigar

to sink, (to) knock or fall down sinking, collapse, subsidence deep deep, profound fungus, mushroom gallows, pitchfork (to) hang (a person) hairpin, fork (bicycle, slingshot) oven, kiln, furnace petty theft, pilfer (to) steal, (to) pilfer furtively, on the sly furtive, stealthy, poacher sullen, surly (person or weather) (to) whip, (to) harass

[fondue]

[fund]

[furtive]

[obfuscate] [fustigate]

Also: defensa offocare

dehesa ahogar desahogar sofocar

refusare

rehusar

pasture, meadow (to) drown, (to) suffocate (to) relieve, (to) alleviate, (to) vent one’s feelings (to) suffocate or smother (person, flames) (to) refuse

[defense, fence]

Historical Note In its road from local dialect to Modern Spanish, Castilian adopted various forms of speech and a portion of its vocabulary from the other forms of Romance spoken in Spain, including Mozarabic, the Romance spoken by Christians in the parts of Spain under Muslim control. At the same time, due to Castile’s steadily increasing political importance, a number of purely “Castilian” forms of speech, initially native to only a very small area and on occasion ridiculed by contemporaries as primitive or uncultured, were able to become the accepted norm in Modern Spanish. The noted Spanish scholar Ramón Menéndez Pidal (–), author of several of the classic works on

T4311.indb 106

8/31/07 6:43:05 AM

INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG



the history of the Spanish language, expressed this conclusion somewhat less delicately. Referring specifically to the change of initial f to h, he wrote: La h no fué (sic ) en un principio más que un barbarismo dialectal propio de la gente menos culta en el Norte de Castilla y tierras limítrofes, uno de tantos casos . . . de particularidades castellanas, primero muy restringidas y que después, con el crecimiento de Castilla, llegan a difundirse por casi toda la Península. The h initially was simply a dialectical barbarism characteristic of the less educated inhabitants in northern Castile and adjoining areas, one of many instances . . . of Castilian peculiarities, at first very limited in scope, which subsequently, with the expansion of Castile, were extended to the quasi totality of the (Iberian) Peninsula.

The f S h change is only one of several peculiarly Castilian characteristics that have been attributed (by Menéndez Pidal and others) to the influence of the Basques, as the Basque language did not have the [f] sound. This explanation is by no means universally accepted, and numerous competing theories have been advanced. What does not seem disputed is that the development f S h occurred in two phases, both originating from the Castilian “heartland”  and gradually expanding through the rest of Castilian-speaking Spain (the first also extended to the Gascon branch of the Occitan language in southwest France): (a) f S aspirated h (as in history, hotel) There is evidence that Latin F was pronounced [h] in zones contiguous with Basque territories as early as the ninth century. This aspirated pronunciation then expanded southward, paralleling the expansion of Castile. There was initially no change in spelling; those using aspirated h continued to write “f” (e.g., fablar pronounced [hablar]). (b) aspirated h S ø The same areas that had initially propagated the aspirated h in place of f subsequently lost the aspiration, and this new pronunciation (or lack  Until , fue (the simple past third person singular for ser) was generally written fué, and it is not uncommon to encounter this form well after this date.  Menéndez Pidal (), .  Castilian Spanish originated in a very small area in north-central Spain (between Santander and Burgos) known as Cantabria, contiguous with Basque territories and one of the last parts of Spain to be “Romanized”. It is likely that the Latin spoken there diverged even more than the “typical” Vulgar Latin from the Classical norms. The name Castilla comes from the castillos (“castles”) that were a prominent feature along its frontier; castellano means both “Castilian” Spanish and “castellan” (i.e., “lord of the castle”).

T4311.indb 107

8/31/07 6:43:06 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

thereof) then spread in a similar manner throughout Castilian-speaking Spain. By the late sixteenth century, the unaspirated pronunciation of Modern Spanish had been firmly established.

Nonetheless, most words have retained their initial f. These include: . WORDS FROM LATIN fl-  OR fr-, e.g.,

flaccus flatus florem (acc.) fluxus fraudem (acc.)

frenum

flaco flato flatulencia flor (f.) flujo fraude fraudulento defraudar freno frenar refrenar

skinny, lean, weak flatus, wind (intestinal gas) flatulence flower flux, flow fraud fraudulent (to) defraud, (to) disappoint brake (to) brake, (to) restrain (to) restrain, (to) curb, (to) rein

[flaccid] [inflation]

[frenum] [refrain]

. WORDS FROM LATIN fo-, WHERE THE o DIPHTHONGED TO BE COME SPANISH ue SEE SECTION .,  e.g.,

focus fontem (acc.) foras fortis

fuego fuente (f.) fuera fuerte

fire fountain, source, fount out, outside, without strong

[focus] [forum] [fort, forte]

. “LEARNED” OR “SEMILEARNED” WORDS, E.G.,

fatalis fatalitas febris fides figura fingere

fatal fatalidad fiebre (f.) fe (f.) figura fingir

fatal, fateful fatality ( fate or misfortune, not death) fever faith figure (to) pretend, (to) feign

[Santa Fe]

 One word beginning with fl- has undergone an altogether different transformation: Latin flamma (“flame”) has become llama, thus making it a homonym with the Andean animal as well as with the third person singular of the verb llamar (“to call”): Se llama José.  The few exceptions are closely linked to verbs in which most of the forms “naturally” developed an undipthonged ho- (the diphthong occurring only in stressed syllables). Hence the noun huelga is associated with the verb holgar (from Latin follicare), which in turn has nine of its forty-seven “simple” conjugations with hue- (huelgo, huelgas, etc.).

T4311.indb 108

8/31/07 6:43:06 AM

INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG

finis firmare

fin firmar

end, finish (to) sign



[affirm, farm]

Until the late fifteenth century, words with aspirated h (in process of disappearance) and those with “real” f were both written with f. By this time, there were many couplets with different meanings and pronunciations but identical written form, one pronounced with aspirated (or no) h, the other with f. Some of these came from the same Latin word, while others had arisen by phonetic accident. To distinguish between these in written as well as spoken Spanish, those with the h (or no) sound had their initial f- changed to h-. Examples of such couplets are: ()

()

()

()

hallar hecha hiel (f.) hijo hilo

fallar fecha fiel fijo fi lo

(to) find done, made bile son thread

(to) render judgment, (to) fail date faithful fixed sharp edge

As a result of these somewhat haphazard developments, the same Latin root has often wound up with both pronunciations in Modern Spanish: Spanish

English

Spanish

English

herradura herramienta herrería

férreo ferrocarril ferretería

ferrous railroad hardware store

herrumbre

horseshoe tool blacksmith’s shop rust

ferroviario

railroad (worker)

hijo hija hijastro hidalgo

son daughter stepchild nobleman

fi lial (adj. & n.f.) fi liación afi liación afi liado

filial, subsidiary filiation, affiliation affiliation affiliate, member

hondo hondamente

fondo fundamental

bottom (n.) fundamental

hondonada hondura

deep deeply, profoundly hollow, dale depth

fundar fundación

Honduras

Honduras

fundamento

(to) found, (to) base foundation, founding foundation (base)

ferrum

filius

fundus

T4311.indb 109

8/31/07 6:43:06 AM

SEC TION . 

Vowel Changes: e S ie, o S ue, etc.

Perhaps the single feature making Spanish the easiest—or least difficult—of any foreign language that an English speaker might seek to learn is the simplicity of its vowel system. Consider the European languages most commonly studied by English speakers (other than Russian, which uses a different alphabet). A reasonably consistent estimation of the “pure” vowels for each language, and the number that are “new” to English speakers, is shown below:

German French Portuguese Italian Spanish

No. of Vowels

“New”

    

    

Spanish thus has not only the fewest vowels, all of which are familiar to English speakers, but it is the only language that can offer a one-to-one correspondence between vowel sounds and letters (a, e, i, o, u). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this to the learner of a new language. This simplicity is partly masked, however, by the fact that pronunciation of English vowels in most cases differs significantly from that of the corresponding Spanish vowel. For example, Spanish republicano and English republican have four vowels in common (e, u, i, a), not one of which has the same pronunciation in the two languages. Spanish

Pronounced Like

republicano

ray•poo•blee•cah•no

This difference reflects the fact that since the days of “Old English” virtually all English vowels have changed their pronunciations (see appendix), while Spanish vowel pronunciation has changed remarkably little since Classical Latin times. Although Spanish vowel sounds have essentially remained constant, the vowels in many individual “popular” words have shifted, albeit to a relatively limited extent. Fortunately, these shifts were linked to a corresponding change

T4311.indb 110

8/31/07 6:43:07 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .



in spelling, so that the one-to-one correspondence between spoken and written forms has, with very few exceptions, been preserved. This is illustrated in the table below, where the vowel affected is highlighted in bold. OCCASIONAL MODIFICATIONS IN SPANISH VOWELS “POPULAR” WORDS

. . . . . . . .

iSe eSi e S ie aSe o S ue oSu uSo au S o

Latin Root

Spanish

English

minus servientem centum tractus porcus complere truncus taurus

menos sirviente ciento trecho puerco cumplir tronco toro

minus servant cent tract pork complete, accomplish trunk Taurus

These changes occur with varying frequency: nos. , , and  are the most common; nos.  and , the least. In corresponding English “learned” words, the original Latin vowel generally remains unchanged (as in all the examples above), while in “popular” words (normally via French), it has frequently been altered. In some cases, the alteration is identical to that which took place in Spanish, thus facilitating the comparison, e.g., intrata

entrada

entry

Diphthongs In two cases (nos.  and ), the “new” vowel is in fact a diphthong: . ie pronounced like “ye” in yet  . ue pronounced like “we” in wet (sometimes more like “wei” in weight) From the point of view of learning vocabulary, there are two important points to note: a). With very few exceptions, these two diphthongs occur only when the vowel in question is located in the stressed syllable. Related words where  At the beginning of a word or syllable, the ie diphthong in much of the Spanish-speaking world is pronounced either like the s in pleasure or the j in judge, while after a consonant the [ye] sound is maintained.

T4311.indb 111

8/31/07 6:43:07 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

the stress falls on a different syllable will therefore generally not display the diphthong. Thus, from Latin TEMPUS come the following (where, in the middle column, the stressed syllable is highlighted in bold): tiempo temporario temporal

tiem•po tem•po•ra•rio tem•po•ral

time temporary temporal

b). This situation occurs with respect to a large class of verbs known as diphthong verbs. Thus, for the verbs pensar (“to think”) and mover (“to move”), one says: (yo) (nosotros) (yo) (nosotros)

pienso pensamos muevo movemos

pien•so pen•sa•mos mue•vo mo•ve•mos

I think we think I move we move

Diphthongs occur in precisely those conjugations where the stress accent falls on the “stem” syllable. Examples are presented below for each of the eight different types of vowel change noted above. In many cases, related words that do not have the vowel change are shown. “Diphthong” verbs are marked with an asterisk. . i S e

circa

cerca () cerca de de cerca acercar cercano cercanía

circus

cerco cercar

 

T4311.indb 112

near, close nearly, close to (place, time, quantity) close up, closely (to) approach, (to) bring near close, nearby proximity, vicinity (pl.), surroundings (pl.) circle, ring, halo (e.g., sun), siege (to) fence, (to) surround

[circa]

[search]

For further details, see Brodsky (, –, ). Where the diphthong forms are “optional”, the asterisk is in parentheses.

8/31/07 6:43:07 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

cerca ()

dicere

circo círculo decir (p.p. dicho ) bendecir contradecir contradicción contradictorio desdecir

maldecir

verum (truth) 

dis-

fides in intrare

predecir predecible predicción verídico veredicto ( Eng.) desdesfigurar desmantelar fe (f.) en entrar entrada entre dentro (de) dentro de una semana adentro

(surrounding) fence or wall circus circle (to) say (to) bless (to) contradict contradiction contradictory (to) not be in keeping with, (to) unsay (retract) (to) curse, (to) speak ill of (to) predict predictable prediction true, truthful, veridical verdict dis(to) disfigure (to) dismantle faith in, into, on (to) enter entry, entrance, entrée  between, among inside, within



[dictate] [benediction]

[malediction]

(“to say the truth”) (“true said”)

[fidelity] [intra]

[inter] ( de  intro)

in a week’s time within, inside

 The -decir verbs have past participles ending in -dicho, with the exception of bendecir and maldecir, which have regular past participles (bendecido, maldecido).  In terms of meals, Spanish entrada—“a dish served before the main course”—preserves the sense of entry, while English entrée (which technically maintains this defi nition) is now normally used to refer to the main course itself.

T4311.indb 113

8/31/07 6:43:08 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

minor

menor al por menor pormenor pormenorizado

minus

minoría menos al menos a menos que minúsculo (adj.) minúscula (n.)

navigare

pilus pro  mittere siccus

navegar navegación navegable navegante (m./f.) pelo prometer promesa seco secar secado (p.p.) secador, -ora secano sequía sequedad desecar

smaller, younger, minor (adj. & n.) retail ( al detalle) detail, details (pl.) detailed (specified in detail) minority minus, less, fewer, least, fewest at least ( por lo menos) unless minuscule, tiny, lowercase (letter) lowercase letter, minuscule (to) navigate, (to) sail navigation, voyage in a boat navigable navigator, seafarer hair (to) promise promise dry (to) dry drying (n.) dryer (hair, hand, clothes)  unwatered or unirrigated land drought dryness (to) dry up, (to) desiccate

[pilosity]

[Dry Sack ] [desiccate]

 English sack refers to various dry white wines imported to England from Spain and the Canaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and initially had the form seck (from French vin sec). It became confused with the ordinary sack (“bag”), which at that time had an alternative form, sek, and when sek fi nally settled on the form sack, so did the dry wine. Dry Sack, a trade name for various types of sherry, thus literally means “dry dry”.  To dry one’s hair or hands, most frequently a secador is used, while a clothes dryer can be either a secador or secadora (see appendix to Annex A).

T4311.indb 114

8/31/07 6:43:08 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

resecar reseco seno temor temer temeroso

sinus timor

tímido timidez vecino (adj. & n.)

vicinus

vecindad avecinar(se) vincere

vencer

vindemia

invencible convencer vendimia

(to) dry out dried up, parched sinus, breast, womb fear (to) fear, (to) be afraid fearful (causing fear), timorous timid timidity neighboring, neighbor vicinity, neighborhood (to) approach (e.g., storm) (to) vanquish, (to) defeat invincible (to) convince grape harvest, vintage



[intimidation]

[Warwick]

[vine]

. e S i

In several of the following examples, the change e S ie (no. ) also occurs (the corresponding vowels are italicized). afición

affectio(n) c(a)ementum

december (a)equalis



cimiento cimentar * cemento cementerio  diciembre igual igualmente igualar igualdad igualitario desigual

fondness, hobby, (sports) fans basis, foundations (e.g., of house—gen. pl.) (to) lay the foundations of cement cemetery December equal, the same equally (to) equalize, (to) equal equality egalitarian unequal, uneven (terrain, character, etc.)

[affection]



At a relatively early stage, Latin ae merged with (Vulgar) Latin (short) e. Cementerio has nothing to do with cemento, but its “superfluous” n may possibly be due to “popular” association of the two words. 

T4311.indb 115

8/31/07 6:43:08 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

ferventem (acc.) levianus renio(n) sementem (acc.) sequentem (acc.)

tepidus

desigualdad hirviente hervir  liviano riñón simiente (f.) siguiente seguir  subsiguiente tibio

inequality boiling (to) boil light, slight, frivolous kidney seed ( semilla) following, next, sequent (to) follow, (to) continue subsequent tepid, lukewarm

[fervent] [levity] [renal] [semen] [segue]

. e S ie

apertus

abierto abertura

bene

bien bienestar benevolencia benévolo

tan + bien c(a)ecus

c(a)elum

calentem (acc.)

también ciego ceguera cielo celeste celestial caliente calentar * calefacción recalentar *

open [aperitif] aperture, opening (physical: e.g., window) well, fine, good (n.), goods (pl.) well-being, welfare benevolence benevolent, volunteer (Amer.) also, too blind [cecum— “blind gut”] blindness sky, heaven sky blue, celestial celestial, heavenly hot [nonchalant] (to) heat, (to) warm up [calenture] heating, heat (to) reheat, (to) [recalescence] overheat

 In eleven (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in hervir shifts from e to i (e.g., present participle hirviendo), while in the nine conjugations in which it is stressed, it becomes the diphthong ie (present tense yo hiervo). Th is pattern is common to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that is followed directly by either r or nt; among the few exceptions is servir (see following note).  In twenty (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in seguir shifts from e to i (e.g., present participle siguiendo and present tense yo sigo). Apart from venir, this pattern is common to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that is not followed directly by r or nt, plus servir. For further details on this and the previous footnote, see Brodsky (, –, –).

T4311.indb 116

8/31/07 6:43:09 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

recalentamiento centum

certus

ciento centavo centenar  centena centímetro cierto acierto desacierto certeza acertar * acertijo concierto concertar *

in-commendare

desconcierto desconcertar * desconcertante encomendar *

crepare

encomienda recomendar * recomendación quebrar * quiebra quebrantar quebrantahuesos  resquebrajar

reheating, overheating hundred hundredth part, cent a hundred (group) centimeter certain, sure good shot (“hit”), good choice, good guess mistake, error certainty, certitude (to) hit (the mark), (to) guess right riddle concert, concerto, accord (to) harmonize, (to) concert, (to) agree confusion, disorder (to) disconcert disconcerting (to) entrust, (to) commend commission, charge (to) recommend recommendation (to) break, (to) go bankrupt bankruptcy, breakdown (values) (to) break, (to) violate, (to) weaken osprey, ossifrage (bearded vulture) (to) crack (wall, pottery)



[centennial]

[crepitate] [crevice]

 A quebrantahuesos is literally a “bone breaker”: quebrantar  huesos. Likewise, an English ossifrage (Latin ossifraga) is a fracturer of bones (ossa). Osprey (a fish-eating hawk) is seen by some as representing a “popular” form of the same word (via French), while others believe it comes from Medieval Latin avis prede (“bird of prey”).

T4311.indb 117

8/31/07 6:43:09 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

decem

desertus

decrépito increpar diez diezmar decimal desierto (adj. & n.) desértico desertar

dextra

desertor deserción diestra diestro

destreza adiestrar 

emendare

adiestramiento enmendar * enmienda remendar * remiendo

equa (h)eremus

yegua  yermo (adj. & n.)

errare

ermita ermitaño errar *

decrepit (to) upbraid, (to) scold ten (to) decimate, (to) tithe decimal deserted, desert deserted, desert-like (e.g., climate) (to) desert (from military, or from obligation) deserter desertion right hand right (adj.), righthanded, dexterous, matador dexterity, skill (to) train, (to) drill, (to) become skilled training (to) emend, (to) amend correction, emendation, amendment (to) mend, (to) patch, (to) darn patch, provisional repair mare barren, uninhabited, wasteland hermitage hermit ( eremita m.) (to) err, (to) wander

[equestrian]

 Diezmar, which has a diphthong in an unstressed syllable, is the exception that proves the rule. The verb was initially dezmar, with diphthongs only in those conjugations where the stress fell on the stem syllable (e.g., yo diezmo), and no diphthongs in the other conjugations (including the infi nitive). In relatively recent times, the verb was “regularized”, so that all conjugations now show diphthongs, even in unstressed syllables.  As for diezmar (see preceding footnote), the original verb adestrar has been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables.  Spanish does not allow a word to start with ie, so the diphthong ie is written ye.

T4311.indb 118

8/31/07 6:43:10 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

ferrum

ferus

festa

error ~ yerro errado (p.p.) errante errata erróneo aberrante hierro herrero herrar * aferrar fiero (adj.) fiera (n.) feroz ferocidad fiesta festín festividad festival festivo festejo

gelu

gr(a)ecus

festejar hielo helar * helado congelar congelador griego (adj. & n.) i griega

Grecia gringo 

error, mistake erroneous, mistaken errant (wandering) misprint, erratum erroneous aberrant iron blacksmith (to) shoe a horse, (to) brand (to) grasp, (to) cling to wild, fierce wild animal ferocious ferocity, fierceness party, fete, holiday, holy day, festival, fiesta banquet, feast festivity festival festive, humorous celebration, festivities (pl.) (to) fete, (to) celebrate ice (to) freeze frozen, freezing cold, ice cream (m.) (to) freeze, (to) congeal freezer Greek “y” (“Greek” i— penultimate letter of alphabet) Greece gringo



[ferrous] [farrier]

[gelid, gel]

[Grecian]

 While labeled in many English dictionaries as “Offensive Slang” (the same category as the “n”-word or dago), Spanish gringo is in fact generally used as a relatively harmless term to refer to foreigners (and not always to “norteamericanos”). It is a deformation of griego: the original sense was in reference to those speaking an unintelligible language, i.e., analogous to the English expression “it’s all Greek to me”. Th is latter expression corresponds in turn to Spanish hablar en griego/gringo or, more commonly, hablar en chino.

T4311.indb 119

8/31/07 6:43:10 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

gubernare

gobernar * gobierno gobernador gobernadora gobernante gubernamental

helm (Germanic) herba

yelmo hierba, yerba yerba mate herbáceo herbario

hibernum

herbicida (m.) herbívoro (adj. & n.) invierno

incendere

invernar (*) encender * encender la luz incendiario incendio

incensum

incendiar incienso incensar *

incensario

(to) govern, (to) steer (nautical)  government, rudder, helm governor lady governor, governor’s wife governing, ruling, ruler (m./f.) governmental helmet grass, weed, herb yerba maté herbaceous herbal, herbarium (dried plant collection) herbicide herbivorous, herbivore winter (to) winter (to) light, (to) switch on, (to) inflame (to) turn on the light (turn off  apagar) incendiary, arsonist (m./f.) fire (large-scale, destructive) (to) set on fire incense (to) incense (perfume with incense), (to) flatter censer (for burning incense)

[gubernatorial]

(OldSp. ivierno) [hibernate]

 The nautical senses preserved in gobernar and gobierno are in fact the original meanings, going back to Greek kubernan (Latin gubernare), which meant “to steer or pilot a ship”.

T4311.indb 120

8/31/07 6:43:10 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

infernus leporem (acc.) manifestus

infierno infernal liebre (f.) manifiesto (adj. & n.) manifestar * manifestación

mel membrum

merenda

metus

manifestante miel (f.) melifluo miembro desmembrar * membrana merienda merendar * miedo miedoso amedrentar

nebula

negare

meticuloso niebla neblina nebuloso (adj.) nebulosa (n.) negar * negación negativo (adj.) negativa (n.f.) negativo (n.m.) denegar * denegación

T4311.indb 121



hell, inferno infernal, hellish hare, rabbit [leporine] (pacemaker) manifest (obvious), manifesto (to) manifest, (to) demonstrate manifestation, (public) demonstration demonstrator (m./f.) honey mellifluous member, limb, penis (to) dismember, (to) break up membrane light afternoon refreshment, tea (UK) (to) have a merienda fear fearful (easily frightened) (to) frighten, (to) intimidate meticulous fog, mist [nebula] light fog, mist cloudy, foggy, hazy, nebulous nebula (to) deny, (to) negate denial, refusal, negative (gram.), negation negative (adj.) negative (response), denial, refusal negative (photo) (to) deny (refuse) denial, refusal, denegation

8/31/07 6:43:11 AM

 

P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

renegar renegado (p.p.) reniego

november parentem (acc.)

pedem (acc.) pellis petra

noviembre pariente emparentar (*) emparentado (p.p.) pie (m.) bípedo piel (f.) película piedra piedra angular pedrada pedregoso pétreo petrificar apedrear empedrar * empedrado

empedernido pigmentum recentem (acc.) (before p.p.) secare (“to cut”)

pimiento reciente recién llegado recientemente segar * siega

sedentare

T4311.indb 122

sentar * asiento

(to) deny vigorously, (to) renounce renegade ( Sp.), apostate blasphemy, curse (lit., “I renege”) November relation, relative (to) be or become related to related (to) foot biped skin, pelt fi lm, movie, pellicle stone cornerstone throw of a stone (or blow from stone) stony, rocky stone (adj.), petrous, stony (hard) (to) petrify (lit. & fig.) (to) stone (to) pave with stone cobbled, stone pavement (m.) hardened (e.g., smoker), inveterate pepper plant, pimento recent recently arrived recently (to) reap, (to) mow, (to) cut down reaping, harvest (time) (to) seat, (to) sit seat

[renege]

[parent]

[pelisse] [Peter, Pierre]

[pigment]

[secant]

[sedentary]

8/31/07 6:43:11 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

asentar * seminare

sembrar * siembra semental semilla semillero semen seminal

semper

siempre

sentire

sempiterno sentir  lo siento (mucho) sentido (p.p. & adj.) sentido (n.) sentido del humor sentimiento sentimental presentir

presentimiento septem september serpentem (acc.) —serpens (nom.) serra

siete septiembre serpiente (f.) —sierpe (f.) sierra serrar * serrano

(to) set, (to) place, (to) assert (to) sow, (to) seed sowing, sowing season breeding, breeding animal (stud) seed ( simiente) seedbed, plant nursery semen, seed (bot.) seminal (pert. to semen or seed ONLY) always sempiternal (eternal) (to) feel, (to) sense (hear), (to) regret I am (very) sorry sensitive (quick to take offense) sense, direction sense of humor sentiment, feeling, regret sentimental (to) have a feeling (that something will happen) premonition, presentiment seven September serpent, snake —serpent, snake saw, mountain range, sierra (to) saw mountain, highland

 

[inseminate]

[Sic Semper Tyrannis]

[septuple]

 Sentir (as well as asentir, consentir, disentir, and presentir) is conjugated analogously to hervir (see footnote no. ).

T4311.indb 123

8/31/07 6:43:11 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

ser(r)are

cerrar * cerradura cerrojo cerrajero cierre encerrar * encierro

sexta (“sixth ”)

siesta sestear

tenda

tienda tendero trastienda

tendere

tender * tendido (p.p. & adj.) tendido (n.) tendencia atender * desatender * contender * contendiente contienda entender * entendimiento entente desentender(se) * extender *

T4311.indb 124

(to) shut, (to) close lock bolt, latch locksmith snap, clasp, closing (to) shut in, (to) enclose, (to) contain confinement, seclusion siesta (to) take a siesta, (to) rest in the shade (cattle) store, shop, tent shopkeeper, storekeeper back room (of a shop), cunning (n.) (to) stretch, (to) lay out, (to) tend (toward) full (gallop), extended, lying down electrical installation, bleachers (bullfight) tendency, trend (to) pay attention to, (to) attend to (to) neglect, (to) not pay attention to (to) contend, (to) compete contending, contender or contestant (m./f.) battle, fight, quarrel (to) understand understanding entente (accord among countries) (to) ignore, (to) take no part in (to) extend, (to) spread

[serried]

[intend]

8/31/07 6:43:12 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

pretender tenerum (acc.)

tierno ternura enternecer

terra

tierra tierra de nadie globo terráqueo terraplén terraza terrateniente terremoto terrenal terreno (adj. & n.) subterráneo (adj. & n.) terrestre territorio territorial aterrar * () aterrar  () aterrizar aterrizaje desterrar * destierro enterrar * entierro desenterrar *

ventus 

T4311.indb 125

viento

(to) try to, (to) aspire to, (to) pretend tender, affectionate tenderness (to) soften, (to) move (stir emotions) earth, land, soil no man’s land terrestial globe, the earth embankment, terrace, terreplein terrace landowner earthquake earthly, worldly, terrestrial terrestrial, terrene, terrain, ground subterranean, underground passage terrestrial territory territorial (to) cover with earth, (to) demolish, (to) land (to) frighten, (to) terrify (to) land (an aircraft) landing (to) exile, (to) banish exile, banishment (to) inter, (to) bury

 

(nr S rn)

[ aqueous]

[tenant]

(in  terra)

burial, interment ( enterramiento) (to) disinter, (to) exhume, (to) unearth wind

Aterrar (), which has no diphthongs, has a different origin: Latin terrere (“to terrify”).

8/31/07 6:43:12 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

vetulus

vendaval

strong (SW) wind, gale

ventana ventanilla

window small window (car, plane, ticket office, etc.) (to) ventilate, (to) air fan, ventilator blizzard old old age (to) age, (to) grow old aging veteran very old, ancient

ventilar ventilador ventisca viejo vejez envejecer envejecimiento veterano (adj. & n.) vetusto

(viento -de -a-valle)

[veteran]

[† vetust]

. a S e

facta januarius lactem (VL acc.) laxius mansio(n) primarius satisfactus

fecha enero leche (f.) lejos mesón primero primario satisfecho

date January milk far, far off inn, tavern first (adj., adv.) primary satisfied

[fait accompli] [lactic acid] [lax] [mansion]

[satisfaction]

. o S ue

bonus

bueno bondad bondadoso bonito () bonito () bonanza

bombón

T4311.indb 126

good goodness, kindness kind, good pretty, nice, good (small) tuna, bonito fair weather at sea, prosperity, bonanza (ore) bonbon, small chocolate, “dish” (person)

[bonus] [bounty] [bounteous]

8/31/07 6:43:12 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

abonar

abonar(se)  abono

bovem (acc.) chorda

hierbabuena buey bovino cuerda

cordón

collum

cuello collar degüello degollar *

computus

cuento cuenta tener en cuenta contar * contable (adj. & n.) contador descuento descontar *

concha

cuenca cuenco concha



T4311.indb 127

(to) fertilize, (to) credit, (to) pay (“make good”) (to) subscribe fertilizer, manure, subscription, season ticket mint (plant) ox, steer, bullock bovine cord, rope, string, chord (geom.), watch spring shoelace, cord (as belt), electric cord, cordon neck, collar (shirt, suit, etc.) necklace, collar throat-cutting, decollation (to) cut the throat, (to) decollate (behead) story, tale count, calculation, bill or check, account (to) take into account (to) count, (to) tell countable, accountant meter, counter (e.g., Geiger), accountant discount (to) discount, (to) deduct eye socket, river basin, valley earthen bowl, hollow or concavity shell, seashell, conch



(“good herb”)

[décolleté]

[compute]

[concha]

Abonar(se) is originally unrelated to the other words.

8/31/07 6:43:12 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

consolare

consolar * consuelo consolación

(in)  contra

desconsolado encontrar * encuentro

corium

cuero excoriar / escoriar coraza

acorazar acorazado (p.p.) cornu costa

cuerno corneta cuesta cuesta arriba cuesta abajo costa costero costilla costal costado acostar () * acostar () guardacostas recostar *

 

T4311.indb 128

(to) console, (to) comfort consolation, alleviation, comfort consolation (e.g., premio de consolación) disconsolate (to) find, (to) encounter, (to) meet meeting, encounter, match (sports) leather, hide (to) excoriate (tear or rub away the skin) cuirass, breastplate, armor plating, shell (animal) (to) armor (ships, forts, etc.) ironclad (adj. & n.), battleship horn, antler cornet, bugle hill, slope uphill downhill coast, shore  coastal rib costal (pertaining to ribs), large sack side, flank (to) put to bed (to) reach the coast coast guard cutter (to) lean (back), (to) recline

[corium, currier]

[unicorn] [coast]

[costa]

[accost] [accoast ]

Also, “cost”, “expense”, although this has a completely different origin (see Section .). Obsolete variant of accost.

8/31/07 6:43:13 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

cova (cava )

[dueño de casa]

duende

focus (“fireplace”)

fuego

cave small cave, shack cavern, cave owner, mistress, landlady maiden, maid (to) dominate, (to) master domination dominant, domineering dominion, control, mastery, domain dominoes (game), domino (costume) (to) predominate predominant predominance (to) seize, (to) take possession of owner, master, landlord young nobleman, male virgin goblin, elf, ghost, duende (magnetism, charm) fire

fuegos artificiales alto el fuego

fireworks ceasefire

foco

focus, center, light (head- or spot-) focus (camera), approach (to a matter) (to) focus (light, camera, thoughts)

domina

cueva covacha caverna dueña doncella dominar dominación dominante dominio dominó, dómino predominar predominante predominio adueñar(se)

dominus

dueño doncel

enfoque enfocar



[Donna] [damsel]

[halt the fire]

 The earliest Latin form was cova, another example where Spanish has preserved an “older” form of the language.

T4311.indb 129

8/31/07 6:43:13 AM



P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H

follis

fogata fogón fogoso hoguera

bonfire, campfire stove, hearth fiery, spirited, ardent bonfire

en la hoguera hogar

(burned) at the stake hearth, fireplace, home (to) fry lightly bellows

rehogar fuelle holgar * huelga decir que holgazán (-ana)

fontem (acc.)

foras

huelga huelga de hambre juerga  jolgorio  fuente (f.) fontana fontanería fontanero fuera afuera foráneo forastero

fortia

fuerza forzar * fortaleza fortalecer

(to) be idle, (to) rest “it goes without saying that . . .” idle, lazy (and such a person) strike hunger strike revelry, carousing fountain, source, fount, serving dish fountain plumbing plumber out, outside, without outside, outskirts (pl.) foreign stranger, outsider (also adj.) force, strength (to) force strength, fortitude, fortress (to) strengthen, (to) fortify

(Section .: f S h)

[foyer] [fool  “windbag”]

[folly] (l S r)

[forum]

[forester]

 Juerga is a variant from Andalusia, where the aspirated h (written j) continued to be pronounced even after it had disappeared from “standard” Castilian. Jolgorio is a more “expressive” form of the original holgorio; a similar “expressiveness” accounts for the initial j- (rather than h-) in the Spanish “ f ”-word ( Latin futuere).

T4311.indb 130

8/31/07 6:43:13 AM

VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .

esforzar *

fortis forum

esfuerzo reforzar * refuerzo fuerte (adj. & n.) forte (