Steering Sustainability in an Urbanising World

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STEERING SUSTAINABILITY IN AN URBANIZING WORLD

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Steering Sustainability in an Urbanizing World Policy, Practice and Performance

Edited by ANITRA NELSON RMIT University, Australia

© Anitra Nelson 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Anitra Nelson has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the editor of this work. Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Gower House Croft Road Aldershot Hampshire GU11 3HR England

Ashgate Publishing Company Suite 420 101 Cherry Street Burlington, VT 05401-4405 USA

Ashgate website: http://www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Steering sustainability in an urbanizing world : policy, practice and performance 1. Urban ecology 2. Urban policy 3. Sustainable development 4. Social change I. Nelson, Anitra 307'1'216 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Steering sustainability in an urbanizing world : policy, practice and performance / edited by Anitra Nelson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7546-7146-6 1. Urban ecology. 2. Urban policy. 3. Sustainable development. 4. Social change. I. Nelson, Anitra. HT241.S74 2007 307.76--dc22 2007014528

ISBN 978 0 7546 7146 6

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall.

Contents List of Figures and Tables Notes on Contributors Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations 1

Steering Sustainability: What, When and Why Mike Berry and Anitra Nelson

vii ix xv xvii 1

Part I Transforming Cities 2

A Sustainable Cities Framework for Housing Peter Newman

17

3

Ecopolis: Concepts, Initiatives and the Purpose of Cities Paul F. Downton

31

4

Permaculture: Design Principles for Urban Sustainability Dick Copeman

43

5

Policy Approaches Incorporating Life Cycle Assessment Tim Grant

55

Part II Collective Practices 6

7

8

Stationary Energy: A Critical Element of a Sustainable Urban Metabolism Alan Pears

69

Sustainable Transport in Urban Neighbourhoods: Policy Approaches, User Responses Jan Scheurer

83

Indicators, Audits and Measuring Success Richard Hyde, Richard Moore, Lydia Kavanagh, Melinda Watt and Karen Schianetz

99

vi

Steering Sustainability in an Urbanizing World

9

Sustainable Water Systems and Household Practices Joe Hurley and David Mercer

111

10

Integrated Waste Management and Zero Waste Glenn Eales and Nutana Donaldson

125

Part III Community and Civil Society 11

Community Action and Engagement for Sustainability James Whelan

139

12

WestWyck: An Urban Sustainability Demonstration Site Mike Hill and Lorna Pitt

153

13

The Role of Leisure Time in Achieving Sustainability Richard Denniss

163

14

Local Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships for Sustainability Tavis Potts, John Merson and Michael Kachka

175

Part IV Transforming Suburbs 15

Innovating for Sustainability in Estate Development: VicUrban in Melbourne Tony Dalton and Geoffrey Binder

189

16

Who Can Afford Sustainable Housing? Bill Randolph, Margaret Kam and Peter Graham

203

17

Retrofitting the Australian Suburbs for Sustainability Tony Dalton, Ralph Horne, Wim Hafkamp and Margaret Lee

215

18

Nurturing Nature in the City Sarah Bekessy and Ascelin Gordon

227

19

How Smart is ‘Smart’? – Smart Homes and Sustainability Mike Berry, Mark Gibson, Anitra Nelson and Ingrid Richardson

239

20

Sustainable Futures Anitra Nelson

253

Index

263

List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 9.1 Figure 17.1 Tables Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 7.1 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 10.1 Table 12.1 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 15.1 Table 18.1

Box Box 2.1

EcoIndicator 99 model Interactions between the environment and the economy LCA performance of Aurora homes Regenerating environmental folklore – applying LCA and its derivatives Hierarchy of supply for the Aurora estate Residential housing renovation institutional practices

Christie Walk compared with a conventional development Processes within Sustainable Human Ecological Development (SHED) Steps Example of a Frogstick Score Sheet for the City of Adelaide Roles played by stationary energy in urban systems Australian consumption of select materials Mobility styles in Freiburg Reducing water use in the home Issues associated with alternative urban water supplies A selection of existing programs for better urban water management Waste management principles and strategies Examples of projects with aims similar to WestWyck Average hours worked per employed person per annum (2000) International comparison of paid annual leave and public holidays Community organizations promoting more leisure and less consumption Sustainability Charter priorities, objectives and performance measures Actions to prioritize biodiversity in suburban development design

Western Australian framework for sustainability

58 59 62 63 117 218

33 37 39 69 71 86 115 116 119 130 155 164 165 170 193 234

17

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Notes on Contributors Dr Sarah Bekessy, Senior Lecturer in environmental studies (RMIT University, Melbourne), specializes in sustainability science and university education for sustainability. Sarah researches biodiversity planning in urban fringe landscapes and tools to support transparent decision-making for environmental management. Professor Mike Berry is a leading scholar of urban studies and public policy. His research at the RMIT–NATSEM Centre of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI), Melbourne, focuses on urban development processes, alternative financing approaches for affordable housing, environmental economics and policy, urban social theory, economics and public policy, housing markets and digital centres. Geoffrey Binder, who has a wealth of experience in education, organizational change and advocacy, is completing a research doctorate at RMIT University. Geoffrey is using the suburban Aurora development as a case study of the internal and external organizational relations and processes of VicUrban – the Victorian Government’s flag bearer of environmental sustainability – as it plans for sustainable urban development. Dr Dick Copeman practises and teaches permaculture at Northey Street City Farm (Brisbane), having been involved since it began (1994). He trained as a doctor, worked in Aboriginal health and general practice, was a Senior Lecturer at the University of Queensland and has campaigned in community health, consumer and environmental movements, especially on food policy, sustainable agriculture and urban transport. Professor Tony Dalton researches with the RMIT–NATSEM Centre of AHURI. This research is closely connected to contemporary issues and policy development in the areas of housing market restructuring, the environmental performance of housing and policy making processes. Tony has contributed over many years to non-government sector policy work and advocacy. Dr Richard Denniss was an economics lecturer (University of Newcastle, NSW), chief of staff for an Australian Democrats leader, Deputy Director of the Australia Institute (Canberra) and is currently adviser to the Australian Greens Party. He has researched policy impacts on economic efficiency and equity, the economics of environmental regulation and co-authored, with Clive Hamilton, Affluenza (Allen and Unwin, 2005).

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Nutana Donaldson, a Senior Consultant with EnviroCom Australia® – an environmental consultancy providing education, training and research services to industry and government organizations across Australia’s eastern seaboard – has spent the last decade supplying sustainability education services to local government and industry, especially in south-east Queensland. Dr Paul Downton is an internationally renowned ecocity advocate and theorist and a prize-winning architect and designer. Paul has specialized in ecological architecture and ecocity development in Australia. In 1991, he was founding convener of Urban Ecology Australia and has been a key member in the establishment of the showcase residential ecologically sustainable development, Christie Walk, in the City of Adelaide. Glenn Eales is Queensland Manager of the environmental consultancy EnviroCom Australia®, which provides education, training and research services to industry and government organizations across Australia’s eastern seaboard. Glenn has focused on waste education, training and research, and is currently completing his doctorate of education at Griffith University (Queensland). Dr Mark Gibson is Senior Lecturer in Media and Communications at Monash University, Victoria. He has recently moved from Murdoch University, Western Australia, where he was Director of the Centre for Everyday Life. He is Editor of Continuum: Journal of Media and Cultural Studies and has published widely on television, everyday life and cultural politics. Dr Ascelin Gordon completed his doctorate in physics at the University of Melbourne, then became a postdoctoral researcher at RMIT University, focusing on making conservation strategies more effective within urban and peri-urban environments. He applies advances in ecological modelling and mathematical optimization to measure and model biodiversity and its relationship to urban development. Peter Graham is Lecturer in Architecture in the Faculty of the Built Environment at the University of New South Wales (UNSW, Sydney). He is Stream Leader of Technologies in the architecture program and has developed undergraduate and postgraduate environmental studies courses for building professionals in Australia and Singapore. Blackwell published his book, Building Ecology (2003). University of Melbourne PhD candidate Margaret Kam co-authored his chapter with Bill Randolph. Tim Grant is President of the Australian Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Society, Assistant Director of the Centre for Design (RMIT University, Melbourne), Adjunct Research Fellow with CSIRO Atmospheric Research and has a LCA consultancy (Life Cycle Strategies Pty Ltd). His broad experience developing and applying LCA methods for companies and organizations includes running professional development courses.

Notes on Contributors

xi

Professor Wim Hafkamp is Scientific Director of the Netherlands Institute for City Innovation Studies, which creates partnerships between cities and university research groups to address complex urban issues by generating, applying, disseminating and sharing knowledge. An environmental economist with a research record in transport, infrastructure, environment and urban development, Wim is Professor of Environmental Sciences at Erasmus University (Rotterdam). Mike Hill, co-proprietor of WestWyck, has 18 years of close involvement with local governments, including periods as mayor of Brunswick and Moreland city councils. Mike is Chair of both the Victorian Local Sustainability (Ministerial) Advisory Committee and the Moreland Energy Foundation (a local climate change project) and has been the chair of EcoRecycle Victoria and a board member of the inaugural Board of Sustainability Victoria. Dr Ralph Horne is Director of the Centre for Design (RMIT University). After completing a doctorate in environmental assessment and climate change his research interests expanded into wider dimensions of sustainability, the role of design and planning processes. He was Senior Lecturer (Resources Research Unit, Sheffield Hallam University, UK) and an Associate of North Energy Associates (an energy services consultancy). Joe Hurley was the project manager of the award winning Urban Water Conservation Demonstration and Research Facility at the Brunswick (Victoria) Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies (CERES), an internationally renowned environment park, then joined the Centre for Design (RMIT University) to complete a doctorate on ecologically sustainable performance in urban fringe developments. Richard Hyde is Reader and Associate Professor in the School of Geography, Planning and Architecture (University of Queensland). Teaching duties and research interests include developing indicators for sustainable housing and urban planning, technology, computer applications and building construction. His co-authors and their affiliations are: Richard Moore, Centre for Sustainable Design (University of Queensland); Dr Lydia Kavanagh (Senior Lecturer in Design and professional chemical/environmental engineer) and Karen Schianetz, both from the School of Engineering (University of Queensland); and Melinda Watt, General Manager of the Earthcheck Organization Australasia, Brisbane. Margaret Lee coordinates a suite of interdisciplinary Re-imagining the Australian Suburb research projects in the RMIT Centre for Design. Her Masters of Social Science (International Urban and Environmental Management) involved discovering and developing alternative methods and models to facilitate sustainable development, especially through community development, facilitating change and building capacity.

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Associate Professor Dave Mercer coordinates the International Urban and Environmental Management program at RMIT University. He researches local, national and international natural resource management and environmental policy and politics. Dave is an elected Fellow of the Environment Institute of Australia and New Zealand, and in 2002 was appointed to join the five-person Victorian Environmental Assessment Council advising the Minister for Environment on managing public lands and waters. Dr John Merson is Executive Director of the Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute and coordinates the graduate research program in Environmental Policy and Management at the University of New South Wales. His current research focuses on environmental policy and management as well as sustainable development. His co-author (with Tavis Potts) is Michael Kachka a BMWHI consultant (Randwick, Sydney). Dr Anitra Nelson is Senior Research Fellow, Sustainable Housing and Urban Planning, at the RMIT–NATSEM Centre of AHURI (Melbourne). Anitra’s research, teaching and publications focus on community-based sustainability, urban landuse planning, ecological economics, sustainable regional development, community forestry and, most recently, the uses of digital technologies in homes, communities and offices. Professor Peter Newman is Professor of City Policy and Director of the Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy (ISTP), Murdoch University, Western Australia. Chair of the Western Australian Sustainability Roundtable, which advises the Premier on how to implement the State’s sustainability strategy, Peter was also Sustainability Commissioner in NSW from 2004 to 2006 and a Fulbright Scholar in 2006–2007. Adjunct Professor Alan Pears (RMIT University) pioneered visions of a sustainable Melbourne in a low fossil fuel intensity world, co-writing Seeds for Change: Creatively Confronting the Energy Crisis (Patchwork Press, 1978). Contributing to Victorian government building energy codes, environmental rating schemes, software tools and public information materials, Alan has been on the Australian Building Codes Board’s energy efficiency steering committee and runs an environmental consultancy (Sustainable Solutions). Lorna Pitt, a Melbourne City councillor for nearly a decade, has a history of involvement in campaigns to save and rebuild public infrastructure. Lorna campaigned for Melbourne’s Queen Victoria Market, fought to save Melbourne’s bluestone laneways, and became a key champion of Royal Park, the lungs of Melbourne. Dr Tavis Potts lectures on coastal management (Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban). Before this position, he was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Western Sydney (UWS), Centre for Innovation and Industry Studies, where his research and outreach focused on developing strategies for sustainable innovation and ‘green’ business and systems for triple bottom line reporting and decision making.

Notes on Contributors

xiii

Professor Bill Randolph is Director of the City Futures Research Centre (UNSW) and Deputy Director of the UNSW–UWS AHURI Research Centre. He previously spent six years as director of the UWS Urban Frontiers Program and was head of research at London’s National Housing Federation after working at the Open University and UK Department of the Environment. Dr Ingrid Richardson is Senior Lecturer in Multimedia and Cultural Studies at Murdoch University. Her research interests include philosophy of technology and science, phenomenology of new media and televisual interfaces, embodied interaction and corporeal feminism. She has published on the cultural and somatic effects of media screens, mobile devices, virtual environments, and biomedical imaging. Dr Jan Scheurer trained in architecture and urban planning in Hamburg, and then completed his doctorate on mobility management in innovative housing developments at Murdoch University. An Associate Researcher in the RMIT–NATSEM Centre of AHURI (Melbourne), he has lectured at RMIT and Murdoch universities and is a consultant in urban design and sustainable transport. Dr James Whelan is an activist, educator and researcher. He convened a postgraduate Environmental Advocacy course (Faculty of Environmental Science, Griffith University) and is Co-Director of thechangeagency.org. His research, training programs and publications focus on social movements, civil society, community action and engagement.

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Acknowledgements Without the encouragement and full support of Professor Gavin Wood, Director of the RMIT–NATSEM Centre of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (Melbourne, Australia), this book would not have eventuated. Initiated as a responsibility of Anitra Nelson – Senior Research Fellow (Sustainable Housing and Urban Planning) – it relied on considerable efforts by other centre colleagues, especially Professor Mike Berry and Professor Tony Dalton, and research assistance from Rilke Muir and Yolande Strengers. RMIT Professor of Sustainability, John Fien, also contributed enthusiastically to publication plans. As outlined in Chapter 1 – with special thanks to Professor Lyndsay Neilson, Christine Kilmartin and Scott Rawlings – the Department of Sustainability and Environment (Victoria) provided valuable advice on chapter drafts and financial assistance for contributors to participate in face-to-face workshops. Finally, thanks to Frans Timmerman, who assisted with copy editing and proofreading. Various contributors acknowledge support specific to their chapters: Professor Tony Dalton and Geoffrey Binder (Chapter 15) thank Barton Williams (VicUrban) for support, advice and recommendations; Richard Hyde et al. (Chapter 8) acknowledge the support of the Australian Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Sustainable Tourism; James Whelan (Chapter 11) sincerely thanks Jill Jordan, Lois Levy, Sheila Davis, Susie Duncan, Katrina Shields, Jon Woodlands, Peter Oliver and Neil Lazarow for their reflections and insights; and the research and preparation of Chapter 19 (Mike Berry et al.) was conducted within the Australasian CRC for Interaction Design, which was established and supported under the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centre Program. Permissions to reproduce material associated with the boxes, figures and tables listed below were gratefully received from the following publishers and copyright holders: ‘Western Australian framework for sustainability’ (Box 2.1) derived from WA Government (2003), Hope for the Future: the Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy (Perth: Department of the Premier and Cabinet). ‘EcoIndicator 99 model’ (Figure 5.1) originally published in Goedkoop, M. and Spriensma, R. (1999), The EcoIndicator 99: A Damage Oriented Method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (Amersfoort: PRé Consultants bv). ‘LCA performance of Aurora Homes’ (Figure 5.3) originally produced by the Centre for Design, RMIT University and the Global Footprint Network (2006), Ecological Footprint Analysis of Aurora Residential Development as a report for the Victorian Environmental Protection Authority, VicUrban and Building Commission, Melbourne.

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‘Australian consumption of select materials’ (Table 6.2) originally published in Newton, P. et al. (2001), Human Settlements, Australia. State of the Environment Report 2001 [Theme Report] (Canberra: CSIRO Publishing for the Department of Environment and Heritage), available at Commonwealth of Australia reproduced by permission. ‘Average hours worked per employed person per annum (2000)’ (Table 13.1) derived from Gittins and Tiffen (2004), How Australia Compares (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press). ‘International comparison of paid annual leave and public holidays’ (Table 13.2) originally published in Denniss, R. (2003), Annual Leave in Australia: an Analysis of Entitlements, Usage and Preferences [Discussion Paper 56] (Canberra: The Australia Institute). ‘Sustainability Charter priorities, objectives and performance measures’ (VicUrban) (Table 15.1) VicUrban (2006), Sustainability Charter Making Our Communities Better (Draft) [February] (Melbourne: VicUrban). Cover photo of Christie Walk, Adelaide (Australia) courtesy of Ecopolis Architects (Paul Downton) September 2005.

List of Abbreviations ABARE ABS $A BASIX BCA BEA BIEC BMCC BMWHI BedZED CERES CSIRO DIY EPR ESD GCCC GDP Gecko HEP HIA ICT ILO ISO LA21 LCA LED NABERS NSW OECD PPP REIN SA SHED UK USA UEA UNEP WA

Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics Australian Bureau of Statistics Australian dollars Building Sustainability Index Building Code of Australia Building Environmental Assessment Beverage Industry Environment Council Blue Mountains City Council Blue Mountains World Heritage Institute Beddington Zero Energy Development Centre for Educational Research in Environmental Strategies Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Do-it-yourself Extended producer responsibility Ecologically sustainable development Gold Coast City Council Gross domestic product Gold Coast and Hinterland Environment Council Halifax EcoCity Project Housing Industry Association Information and communication technology International Labour Office International Organization for Standardization Local Agenda 21 (aka Agenda 21) Life cycle assessment Light-emitting diode National Australian Building Environmental Rating Scheme New South Wales Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Public–private partnership Regional Environmental Innovation Network South Australia Sustainable human ecological development United Kingdom United States of America Urban Ecology Australia United Nations Environment Program Western Australia

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Chapter 1

Steering Sustainability: What, When and Why Mike Berry and Anitra Nelson

How does ‘evidence’ speak to ‘power’? (Pawson 2006, 1) Climate change presents a unique challenge for economics: it is the greatest and widestranging market failure ever seen. (Stern 2006, Executive summary, i)

Introduction Although the contributors to this collection write from an Australian perspective, the context within which they discuss urban sustainability – the issues, approaches and challenges – is global. They address two main challenges: understanding the forces leading to unsustainable social and environmental outcomes in advanced capitalist, urbanized nations and encouraging creative ways of moving society onto more sustainable paths. In this latter task, governments have a critical role as major consumers of resources, providers of infrastructure, and through powers to tax and regulate. Hence, one theme running through the book focuses on how researchers and policy makers can ‘speak’ to each other and how timely credible research can inform and improve policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. The theme of intertwining the dialogues and respective activities of researchers and policy makers guided the practical process of developing this book. Senior policy makers and advisers of the Department of Sustainability and Environment from the State Government of Victoria, Australia, kindly agreed to read and comment on early drafts of chapters and to reflect on how they saw sustainability policy developing and impacting on the environment, economy and society. At a workshop held in mid-2006, departmental officers and authors discussed the issues, methods and implications raised in the various contributions. The aim was to produce a thoroughly practical policy manuscript facilitated by a dialogue in which authors and policy makers challenged one another to articulate what a ‘good’ sustainability policy is and how it is delivered most effectively. Inevitably, differences of view and values emerged, both between and among the participating researchers and policy makers, resulting in a robust and informative debate that proved to be invaluable. On the day following the workshop the authors met as a group and exhaustively reviewed the insights gleaned from their exchange with the policy makers and worked through the changes suggested. Both workshops were critical in setting the direction for the production of the final chapters that

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appear in this book. This approach has much to recommend it as a process for getting researchers and policy makers to speak and listen, and therefore understand each other. Steer What? The ‘steering’ reference in the title of this book reflects major changes in public policy development and analysis over the past twenty years in advanced capitalist nations. Neo-liberalism has emerged as the dominant policy paradigm, especially in the Anglo-democracies of Australia, Britain, the United States, Canada and New Zealand (Bell 2002). From this viewpoint, the role of government is to ‘steer, not row’, to set the legal and institutional framework within which ‘the market’ operates to allocate productive resources and to distribute the fruits of economic activity across the population and between countries and regions. What is clear, however, is that the challenge of steering economic and social development in productive, benign and above all sustainable ways is more complicated and difficult to achieve than the standard model of neoclassical economics proposes. Myriad ‘market failures’ intervene between rowers and navigators. The most obvious and – as the Stern quote above suggests – serious challenge is the complex, interacting set of effects resulting in long term, accumulating and irreversible climate change. Other failures are generated by negative externalities and distributional inequities associated with resource extraction, polluting activities, the abuse of political and market power and ecosystem breakdown. Achieving sustainability requires a society to adequately deal with the full range of market failures facing that society, many of which will be cross-border and global in scope. In this context, Dovers (2006, 7) defines sustainability as ‘the ability of human society to persist in the long term in a manner that satisfies human development demands but without threatening the integrity of the natural world’. He characterizes sustainable development as the capacity to deal with threats generated across four domains: diminution and degradation of resources; pollution and waste; ecosystem services; and ‘society and the human condition’ (Dovers 2006, 9). In each domain, deliberate government policy can help or hinder societies seeking sustainable development trajectories. However, due to the nature, scale, timing and scope of the threats posed, policy develops in a highly uncertain environment and, as such, is likely to be iterative, piecemeal and radically incomplete. Many of the processes driving economic, social and environmental change are complex in the technical sense and pertain to the operation of complex adaptive systems (Beinhocker 2006). Therefore it is impossible to accurately forecast their effects on the ground. This fact imparts an open-ended dynamic – a dose of ‘fractal uncertainty’ – to sustainability policy. Why Steer, and When? Many of the detrimental environmental impacts of human activities interact and form complex feedback mechanisms, with complex and synergistic long-term consequences that render attempts to steer outcomes even more difficult. Thus,

Steering Sustainability: What, When and Why

3

sustainability policy must deal with drivers and effects that cut across conventional boundaries of academic disciplines and national boundaries, that have long-term gestation periods and impacts, and that entail chronic uncertainty. This imperative follows from the fact that effects and impacts – such as extreme climate events – display what founders of complexity science call ‘wild randomness’ (Mandelbrot and Hudson 2004). Instead of being normally distributed around a clear median with ‘small tails’ – infrequent extreme events, such effects tend to follow ‘a power law’ – there is a much larger frequency of both very small and very large impacts. Hence, policy makers should expect more ‘one in a hundred year’ events. Although path dependent to a degree, these events cannot be accurately forecasted in advance but contingency response plans will lessen the scale of their impacts when they do eventuate. The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in the New Orleans region is a sad reminder of policy failure in this respect. Policy makers need to recognize the constraints placed on their capacity to influence events by the long time horizons over which effects unfold, the paucity of workable models and relevant data, and the sensitivity of outcomes to the initial conditions prevailing in any specific context. Such constraints are magnified by weaknesses in institutional systems. Most policy systems with which we are familiar are poorly placed to deal with either the lack of knowledge of likely outcomes over the longer term and the ‘back-end loading’ of many of those events. To the extent that the negative consequences of unsustainable current practices are concentrated in the middle-to-distant future, current policies are likely to be inadequate. The way in which advanced industrial countries build their housing systems is a useful example. Market forces tend to focus the minds of both housing providers and residents on the immediate costs of accessing the dwelling, not on the lifetime costs of living in it. Indeed, a house is a physical asset with a long life, typically servicing a few generations. If the extra cost of building-in energy or water-efficient features and fittings adds significantly to the up-front purchase price, the market will ruthlessly weed out these initiatives, even though they might have repaid the residents in dollars and amenity many times over during the life of the dwelling as well as reducing the overall ‘environmental footprint’. In circumstances of clear market failure, appropriate and well-targeted government interventions can make a positive difference – in this case, by providing positive incentives to house builders and residents to include environmentally sensible features or regulating to achieve the same outcome. Some environmental impacts are so large and pervasive that they defeat the reach of any one government to address them through targeted, piecemeal policies. Global warming falls into this category. In this case, the appropriate response must be collective, involving contributions from government, industry and community organizations at the local, regional, national and international levels. Because of the cumulative, irreversible nature of the problem and the huge potential costs of getting it wrong, collective action will need to be ‘front-end loaded’. The Executive Summary of the Stern Review (2006, i) has underscored the crucial importance of action, given the inertial build-up of greenhouse gases:

Steering Sustainability in an Urbanizing World

4

The effects of actions now on future changes in the climate have long lead times. What we do now can have only a limited effect on the climate over the next 40 or 50 years. On the other hand, what we do in the next 10 to 20 years can have a profound impact on the climate in the second half of this century and the next.

Early collective action in such circumstances will not only reduce the eventual costs of greenhouse emissions over the long term but, according to the Stern Review, will also minimize the total costs of mitigation and adaptation entailed. However, the barriers to effective collective action at the various levels are immense. Barriers include the high transaction costs of reaching and implementing collective action, ‘free riders’ and the short policy horizons of governments locked into conventional electoral cycles. Conversely, the scale and chronic uncertainty of some impacts can provide a strategic case for invoking ‘precautionary principle’ or ‘wait-and-see’ options. This requires policy makers to avoid or delay making decisions where the impacts are unclear until better intelligence is available to assess and manage the risks. Such an injunction runs counter to most approaches to public policy, which tends to implicitly attach a zero value/cost to potential effects that cannot be readily quantified and given a probability measure. Somewhat akin to the precautionary principle, the maxim of ‘minimum regret’ invites policy makers and others in the broader ‘policy community’ to place themselves at some distant time in the future and speculate on levels of regret if particular negative scenarios play out, and then to return to the present and choose a policy path that would give them the lowest cause to regret. The issue of when governments should intervene in areas that have very longterm impacts is also intimately tied up with concerns over intergenerational equity – questions related to what we owe future generations. The original definition of sustainable development introduced by the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future (WCED 1987), explicitly raised this concern. Where the impacts are large, irreversible and long lasting, government policy interventions are required earlier rather than later to protect the rights of unborn generations. This essentially ethical prescription places a heavy burden on current governments, especially in view of the fact that unborn generations do not vote. The latter’s interests are represented (tenuously) in democracies such as Australia only to the extent that today’s voters and governments accept the responsibility for their future welfare and act accordingly. New Policy Drivers It is clear that climate change, and the issues surrounding it, will be a dominant factor in public policy in the coming decade. In addition to the specific problem of dealing with the effects of climate change, the following drivers, mostly mutually reinforcing, will concentrate the minds of policy communities around the world: 1. Energy. ‘Peak oil’, the point at which the known world supply of oil reserves has peaked and begins to decline, will pose increasing economic pressures on industrial and industrializing countries. The task of finding alternative energy sources and technologies will become more pressing. The nuclear energy

Steering Sustainability: What, When and Why

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

5

option has been raised as a means of combating greenhouse gas emissions, which raises massive problems for institutional systems, particularly national governments, concerning the storage of nuclear waste and threats of nuclear weapons proliferation and terrorism. The heavy dependence of many countries on relatively plentiful supplies of coal to generate the rapidly increasing global demand for electricity makes it difficult to bend policy in favour of more environmentally benign alternatives, especially in major coal-exporting countries, such as Australia. Debate over policy developments tends to oscillate between encouraging the exploitation of alternative energy sources and developing ‘clean coal’ technologies. Water. In many countries the adequate and secure supply of water for agriculture, industry and dwellings is increasingly at risk. Water access, within and between countries, threatens to be a major cause of conflict. Water scarcity may force mass intra- and international migrations and require very large infrastructure investments for solutions such as long distance delivery and desalination. Policy systems will be massively challenged to respond in such conflicts. Overstressed river ecosystems are likely to collapse if adequate water flows are not maintained or regained, affecting other environmental and economic assets. Australia, as a dry, ‘old’ continent, is at the forefront of this particular challenge. Pollution. Rapid industrialization continues to generate escalating volumes of pollution, given current technological trajectories traversed by the developed world and fast-growing econom, especially China and India. Instances include air pollution from motor vehicles, water pollution from industrial discharges and residential waste disposal. Population Growth and Ageing. Population growth, particularly in the less developed countries, places increasing stress on fragile environmental and resource bases. The global population shows weak signs of stabilizing, a major hope being that increasing living standards in China and India will result in continuing falls in birth rates. Ageing populations in countries such as Australia place increasing and expensive demands on governments to meet the needs of older citizens – appropriate housing, mobility and leisure services but, above all, access to adequate health care. Health. Besides aged care, governments will be faced with major challenges posed by current and possible future pandemics. AIDS and bird flu prefigure the potential scale and cost of such challenges and the difficulties of achieving effective international responses. Other diseases, such as malaria, tuberculosis and chronic eye diseases, are savage suppressors of economic and social development in underdeveloped regions. Poverty and Insecurity. Widespread poverty in underdeveloped countries can deny such societies economic resources to engage in sustainable practices. Continued loss of forests, overexploitation of fishing stocks and pollution generated by overurbanization result partially from poverty. Successful efforts by countries like China to break out of poverty place different stressors on the environment, especially to the extent that they follow the natural resourcedependent technological path of advanced industrial nations. Increasing

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insecurity in strategic areas threatens access to key resources, notably the Middle East and oil. It is difficult to see major advances in sustainability globally unless and until governments respond collectively to the problems of extreme poverty and insecurity. 7. Financial Markets. As the cost of unsustainable development rises exponentially, world financial markets are factoring in environmental risk when valuing the worth of businesses, reflected in cost and availability of insurance, the rapid growth of ‘socially responsible investment’, and shifts by investors towards companies that ‘screen’ positively on social and environmental grounds. As monitoring techniques, data bases and financial asset allocation become more sophisticated, companies that fail to move beyond ‘greenwash’ activities will bear higher costs of finance than more environmentally responsible competitors and bear increasing damage to their reputation (affecting sales). The Urban Question Many of the drivers and impacts noted above are associated with remorseless global processes of urban growth and concentration. For the first time in history, most people live in urban centres. There are more than twenty city-regions with more than twenty million inhabitants, most located in Asia. Current urbanization patterns impose unsustainable lifestyles on urban residents and unsustainable systems of resource use, transportation and waste disposal. ‘Steering sustainability’ really means dealing with the unwanted consequences of urban growth. This imperative calls for governments to improve the rate of urban metabolism, increasing ‘good’ life-sustaining outputs while reducing ‘bad’ outputs (such as pollution) and resource inputs. As in the Chinese example, this might entail government controls on immigration rates to the largest and most congested urban centres in favour of smaller centres. Contributors to this book adopt a deliberate urban focus. More specifically, the focus is on the lived experiences of people in urban and suburban settings. They deal with a range of issues and approaches to improving sustainability ‘on the ground’ and argue for policy makers to steer people towards the mass adoption of more sustainable practices. Central themes running through the book include environmental democracy and the lifestyle (behavioural) changes necessary to achieve sustainable outcomes and holistic social learning. Each contributor identifies key sustainability principles and practices, frameworks, approaches and concepts for achieving sustainable housing and urban development outcomes. All the authors ask, in a constructive way: What policies and practices are most effective in enabling and forcing desirable social change, and what are the barriers that must be overcome to do so? Transforming Cities The book is divided into four sections. In Part 1 Transforming Cities, the contributors offer four overarching approaches to understanding the challenge of shifting urban

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growth trajectories to more sustainable paths. Each contributor operates from a distinct perspective, highlighting implications for policy makers. Newman (Chapter 2) focuses on what constitutes a sustainable residential urban form in a growing metropolitan region. Newman speaks at the level of national policy making and metropolitan-scale planning, drawing on his personal experiences as a senior adviser on sustainability policy to the Western Australian Premier and a stint as the New South Wales Sustainability Commissioner (2004–2006). He begins with Western Australia’s framework for sustainability definition of sustainability, elaborating on its implications for housing, in terms of the framework’s principles, which attempt to ground and operationalize complex and contentious concepts such as ‘intergenerational equity’. Newman identifies car dependence as a critical area for action – a topic considered by Scheurer in Chapter 7 too – and categorizes housing within three urban planning and development patterns: walking cities, transit cities and automobile cities. Analysing city sprawl in these terms, he presents economic as well as equity and environmental arguments in favour of transit-oriented centres and walking city centres. Downton (Chapter 3) introduces the concept of ‘the ecopolis’, defined as minimizing ecological footprints (biophysical) and maximizing human potential (human ecology) in order to repair, replenish and support processes that maintain life. He has been a principal practitioner specializing in ecological architecture and is a resident founder of the Christie Walk project, a sustainable urban residential demonstration model or ‘urban fractal’ in Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. Downton sees the ecological city as ‘the next evolutionary step for urbanism’ and presents three model demonstration projects, ‘urban fractals’. Downton speaks at the grainy level of community-inspired action and as an architect/designer. Nevertheless, his contribution and strategy is neither parochial nor small-minded. In fact it offers a philosophical, social and historical ‘big picture’ perspective of how to address sustainability challenges. Thus, he elaborates on ten ecopolis development principles, presents seven aspects of the sustainable human ecological development process (such as bioregional ‘placing’ and biozoning), introduces a novel ‘frogstick’ measure (urban ecology checklist) and proposes four conditions for ecocities (seeing the city within its hinterland, integrating knowledge, cultural change for ecological sustainability, and urban fractals). Copeman (Chapter 4) switches the gaze to the micro level. He offers a simple, straightforward and eloquent introduction to permaculture and how its principles and perspective can be applied in urban planning and policy making as well as at the grassroots level (where it originated and has been most evident). He defines ‘permaculture’ as a sustainable approach to living with nature through applying three ethical principles – care for the earth, care for the people, share surplus resources – and twelve design principles (that structure the chapter). His points are illustrated by examples, such as Brisbane’s Northey Street City Farm, where he has worked since 1994. He emphasizes third way organizations, neither public nor private enterprises, but cooperatives, collectives and networks that support growth of food in cities and so on. Alternative technologies, managed at the grassroots, mimic and control nature to modest human ends.

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More broadly, Copeman sees permaculture as a way to heal the historical separation of rural and urban forms: ‘by creating mosaics of housing, industry, shops, offices, farmland and bush right through and around cities, which would facilitate interesting and productive interactions at the boundaries of different areas, not only in the inner city but also in the suburbs and on the urban fringe.’ In this view, social diversity complements ecological stability. Permaculture has often been practised and perceived as a rural development but Copeman uses the community garden as an exemplar of urban permaculture while standing his ground that decentralization is an ecological necessity. In this way his vision can be distinguished from Newman’s and Downton’s. Grant (Chapter 5) adopts an explicitly technical cast. He presents life cycle assessment (LCA) as a critical lens through which to track and interrogate sustainability outcomes. He defines LCA, outlining its short history and applications with respect to sustainable housing and urban planning. Grant introduces the notion of ‘environmental folklore’ to refer to the shared knowledge of understanding and working towards sustainability. He positions LCA as a system to evaluate the comparative potential and limits of strategies, activities and products to progress sustainability. LCA is proposed as a humanistic science, which helps ‘renew environmental folklore and provide more rational and responsive decision making in urban planning’. Grant outlines a systematic approach to measuring the environmental impacts of manufacturing products and providing services and discusses its application in Aurora, a master-planned estate on the northern fringes of Melbourne, which aims to improve environmental standards and performance of suburban homes and households. Aurora is the focus or reference point for other contributors too – Dalton and Binder (Chapter 15) and Hurley and Mercer (Chapter 9). Compared with other chapters in the first part of this book, LCA appears very technical and limited in scope. However, Grant presents it as a set of overlapping techniques which, broadly applied, might offer a general and big-picture analysis of sustainability that can support effective government policy and improve environmental performance in both business and household sectors. Collective Practices The contributions to Part II Collective Practices focus on ‘fields’ of sustainability, such as water and waste. They provide overviews of contemporary challenges and discuss practical policies and strategies to address such challenges. A recurrent theme is the need for developing consistency and complementarities between individual and household-level sustainable practices and collective urban systems and infrastructure. Pears (Chapter 6) examines non-transport (stationary) energy supplies and uses within an urban metabolism framework, which analyses inputs, outputs, dynamics and impacts. He highlights an integrated perspective arguing that, for instance, highdensity settlements might economize on energy uses and costs but limit potential solar energy collection, storage and use and involve social disadvantages. Thus he

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discusses policy options within a real world of urban lifestyles, technological and economic developments, analysing ‘diversified solutions’ which take into account the various stakeholders and actors: industry, planners and regulators as well as consumers. Pears argues for policy making to be open, flexible, adaptive and innovative while challenging lifestyle choices that demand high energy-use, such as the trend towards larger houses despite a decline in household size. Scheurer (Chapter 7) addresses challenges associated with moving from car dependence, which Newman (Chapter 2) identified as the key barrier to urban sustainability. Framing his discussion in a supply–demand model, Scheurer argues for integrated solutions: innovative energy-saving and resource-saving technologies; well-planned and organized urban transport systems; and changes in transport practices at the level of individuals. He offers European models and solutions to transport dilemmas as options for Australian policy makers. He discusses types of travellers, i.e. travel practices, as well as forms of travel (such as bicycle riding), arguing that urban structures need to be examined, understood and developed as systems of mobility choices and limits. While sustainability indicators and audits proliferate, Hyde et al. (Chapter 8) argue that there have been insufficient assessments of how well these tools assist policy makers to implement, monitor and evaluate their sustainability strategies. To promote an emerging debate, they examine building environmental assessment tools, which aim to contribute to the successful implementation of sustainability policies and initiatives in housing, identifying their assumptions, weaknesses and practical benefits. Hyde et al. offer examples from Britain and Australia. They argue that, in as much as building environmental assessment tools are able to accurately predict, measure and monitor sustainable buildings, they have a role in evidencebased policy making and usefully contribute to correcting and otherwise reforming policy and practices. Hurley and Mercer (Chapter 9) make a comment applicable to other areas considered in this book, that ‘know-how and technology available to save water and improve water quality are far in advance of the majority of practices’. Living in a ‘fool’s paradise’, urban Australians have expected free plentiful water supplies but today face radical limits on domestic water use. For instance, the Victorian Government has a target of reducing Melbourne’s water consumption by 75 per cent by 2015. Watering gardens, showering, washing cars and filling outdoor swimming pools are regulated or under scrutiny. Technology, household practices, water agencies, supplies and services must change to achieve reductions in water use. Hurley and Mercer emphasize the importance of community education, referring to Aurora estate innovations to reduce demand and improve sustainable domestic water supplies, as well as a range of social, regulatory and economic initiatives that represent models for future practices. Eales and Donaldson (Chapter 10) outline the evolution of integrated waste management as a response to outdated landfill methods for dealing with urban waste. They focus on the ‘waste hierarchy’ – avoid, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover energy and dispose – as the heart of managing waste for sustainability. Again attention is drawn to the significance of education and actions at a household level for wastemanagement systems to succeed.

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Community and Civil Society The successful implementation of sustainability policies in urban areas relies heavily on the practices of individuals and households in the contexts of community learning and neighbourhood action. In Part III Community and Civil Society, the contributors analyse the complexities of creating sustainable communities, citizens for sustainability. Whelan (Chapter 11) argues that urban futures will be determined through vigilant and resourceful action by residents’ groups and environmentalists. His analysis focuses on community action with respect to planning and developments in Maleny and along the Gold Coast (Queensland). His contribution is unique in arguing that women have fulfilled a ‘pivotal role’ and that alternative economic exchange systems are significant. Whelan addresses conflicts that commonly arise between grassroots groups and local councillors and bureaucracies, revealing that we have few effective political processes to engage with and harness community energies already supporting sustainable developments. He concludes that permanent engagement and reform based on shared understandings and decision making is crucial to achieve sustainability. Mike Hill and Lorna Pitt (Chapter 12) have been prominent political figures, especially in local government and specifically concerned with sustainable urban planning and design. Instrumental in turning a former inner suburban primary school into a showpiece sustainable housing development, Hill and Pitt summarize their experiences and challenges in creating WestWyck as an urban ecovillage for educational purposes. They detail the practical challenges of integrating energy and water efficient techniques and technologies, using recycled materials and addressing transport needs. In this ‘market oriented’ development, the neighbourhood community is an active concept involving rights and responsibilities to ensure that the local ecology, local community and local economy coexist in sustainable ways. Work–life balances are intricately associated with economic activities that impact on the environment. Denniss (Chapter 13) points out that most Australians are working longer, earning and spending more, yet still want to increase consumption. He argues that less working and spending is likely to have a positive impact on the environment. A political adviser for years, Denniss is currently attached to the Greens Party national leader Senator Bob Brown. His approach is practical. Referring to the ‘slow food movement’, the ‘simple living network’, the ‘buy nothing day’ and so on, he suggests actions for individuals and community-based groups to alter the situation. Finally, Denniss lists fourteen policy options that federal, State and local governments might consider to support less work, less consumption and a more sustainable environment. Potts et al. (Chapter 14) discuss ways of operationalizing UN Local Agenda 21 – ‘global talk to local action’ – drawing on experiences of partnerships between business, government, university researchers and communities. They define partnerships as ‘tools that promote dialogue, cooperation and education across different sectors and stakeholders’ with a specific utility for achieving sustainability and refer to two case studies to argue that universities can facilitate communitybased sustainability by acting as independent brokers – scoping ways forward

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and assisting in resolving conflicts between interested stakeholders. This role complements research advice, identifying, collecting and analysing appropriate information to enhance local understanding, knowledge building, and conducting trials of sustainability solutions. Transforming Suburbs Part IV Transforming Suburbs focuses specifically on issues related to sustainable housing: government as an agent for change, affordable sustainable housing, sustainable renovations (‘retrofitting the suburbs’), policies and strategies to conserve nature in urban settings, and the sustainability aspects of high-technology ‘smart’ homes. VicUrban is a State-owned land development agency involved with urban housing provision in Victoria. In the last decade housing sustainability performance and its measurement have become key concerns for such agencies. VicUrban has developed the Sustainability Charter, a performance-based planning initiative, which Dalton and Binder (Chapter 15) analyse in the context of a decline in housing affordability and difficulties with providing services for residents of low-density developments in sprawling suburban fringes. They identify three policy challenges: housing affordability, service delivery, and reducing the environmental impacts of lowdensity suburban developments. They identify a major weakness, public transport, over which VicUrban has little direct control, highlighting the agency’s limitations and the need for holistic, whole-of-government approaches to sustainability. Randolph et al. (Chapter 16) consider minimum environmental performance standards for new housing in the light of affordability to conclude that equity issues and affordability have lost out. This chapter is a plea to make housing affordability a central element of the housing sustainability debate and practice: ‘Unless these two issues are tackled concurrently in policy development, we risk having to compromise both qualities – an outcome which undermines the triplebottom-line equity aspirations of genuine sustainable housing.’ The chief problem is that environmentally sustainable housing is costing more than traditional housing, which mainly excludes low-income households that will not benefit much from any ‘trickle-down’ effect. Dalton et al. (Chapter 17) consider gaps in research and policies with respect to residential housing improvements conforming with and improving environmental housing performance standards. The authors review a series of ‘important but uncoordinated initiatives’to identify questions inadequately addressed in the literature: Why do householders alter their homes? How concerned are they with improving the sustainability performance of their homes? How, and to what extent, are renovators informed about improvements for sustainability outcomes? Barriers to improving environmental features of alterations and additions to existing housing stock include limited information and hidden costs and benefits, complicating assessments of the economic benefits of environmental improvements and accentuating risk factors. The authors conclude that institutional change and focus is required to highlight the invisible potential of enhancing the sustainability of housing improvements.

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Conservation is an urban issue in Australia, where settlement and subsequent urbanization has tended to develop along the coast, in areas of high ecological value, high biodiversity, dependable rain and fertile soil. Land incorporated into our sprawling cities has been virtually unmanaged for its ecological values. In line with international trends, and challenging the implied balance of outcomes in concepts such as environmentally sustainable development, Bekessy and Gordon (Chapter 18) argue that ‘short-term economic gains consistently win over biodiversity concerns on a localized case-by-case basis’. Experts in preserving biodiversity have not contributed sufficiently to urban planning. Land requires integrated management across landscape and biological scales distinct from the socially created zones, powers and responsibilities of governments. To address the challenge of managing urban biodiversity – ‘nurturing nature in the city’ – the authors present a vision of ‘Biodiversia’, ‘a suburb … designed with the preservation of biodiversity as a top priority’. There is a long history of political and economic leaders hailing or following technological ‘advances’ to address challenges facing humankind. Through the first half of the twentieth century home automation (the robot) was viewed as a way to save effort and time on household chores and maintenance. During the second half of the century, home automation has been applied to reduce risks and to improve security, safety, comfort and entertainment in homes. Most recently, housing-related technology (such as water and energy meters) has been applied for sustainability ends. Such features have been integrated into smart designs and developments, hightech and ‘more sustainable’ dwellings. Chapter 19, by Berry et al., gives a critique of the concept of the smart home from four perspectives: historically, the point of view of policy making, in the context of innovation and, finally, through a review of ‘non-determinist ways of interpreting human–technology relations’. In the concluding Chapter 20 Nelson returns to an holistic perspective: what are the principles, processes and practices that will steer sustainable urban futures? References Bell, S. (ed.) (2002), Economic Governance and Institutional Dynamics (Melbourne: Oxford University Press). Beinhocker, E. (2006), The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity and the Radical Remaking of Economics (Boston: Harvard Business School Press). Dovers, S. (2006), Environment and Sustainability Policy: Creation, Implementation, Evaluation (Sydney: The Federation Press). Mandelbrot, B. and Hudson, R. (2004), The (Mis)Behaviour of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin and Reward (London: Profile Books). Pawson, R. (2006), Evidence-Based Policy: A Realist Perspective (London: Sage Publications). Stern, N. (2006) The Economics of Climate Change – The Stern Review [website] HM Treasury [website], (for Executive summary, see long version).

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WCED (1987), Our Common Future [Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development] (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

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Part I Transforming Cities

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Chapter 2

A Sustainable Cities Framework for Housing Peter Newman

Introduction Sustainability has become a key concept for planning cities’ futures. All Australian cities now have metropolitan planning strategies framed around sustainability. This chapter applies the framework developed by the Government of Western Australia (2003) for its State sustainability strategy to cities, with an emphasis on housing policy. The WA framework for sustainability included a definition and a set of principles (see Box 2.1) that can be applied to demonstrate how to think about sustainability in any area of human activity. This chapter uses these principles as the framework of an approach to housing for a sustainable city. Box 2.1 Western Australian framework for sustainability

Definition of Sustainability Sustainability is meeting the needs of current and future generations through an integration of environmental protection, social advancement and economic prosperity. Sustainability Principles – Foundation Principles 1. Long-term Economic Health Sustainability recognizes the needs of current and future generations for longterm economic health, innovation, diversity and productivity of the earth. 2. Equity and Human Rights Sustainability recognizes that an environment needs to be created where all people can express their full potential and lead productive lives, and significant gaps in sufficiency, safety and opportunity endanger the earth.

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3. Biodiversity and Ecological Integrity Sustainability recognizes that all life has intrinsic value and is interconnected, and biodiversity and ecological integrity are part of the irreplaceable life support systems upon which the earth depends. 4. Settlement Efficiency and Quality of Life Sustainability recognizes that settlements need to reduce their ecological footprint (i.e. less material and energy demands and reductions in waste), whilst they simultaneously improve their quality of life (health, housing, employment, community…). 5. Community, Regions, ‘Sense of Place’ and Heritage Sustainability recognizes the reality and diversity of community and regions for the management of the earth, and the critical importance of ‘sense of place’ and heritage (buildings, townscapes, landscapes and culture) in any plans for the future. 6. Net Benefit from Development Sustainability means that all development, and particularly development involving extraction of non-renewable resources, should provide a legacy of enduring value and thus should strive to provide net environmental, social and economic benefit for future generations. 7. Common Good from Planning Sustainability recognizes that planning for the common good requires acceptance of limits to consumption of public resources (like air, water and open space) so that a shared resource is available to all. Sustainability Principles – Process Principles 8. Integration Sustainability requires that economic, social and environmental factors be integrated into planning, assessment and decision-making by applying all the principles of sustainability at once, and seeking mutually supportive benefits with minimal trade offs. 9. Accountability, Transparency and Engagement Sustainability recognizes that:

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a) people should have access to information on sustainability issues; b) institutions should have triple bottom line accountability on an annual basis; c) regular sustainability audits of programs and policies should be conducted; d) public engagement lies at the heart of all sustainability principles. 10. Precaution Sustainability requires caution, avoiding poorly understood risks of serious or irreversible damage to environmental, social and economic capital, designing for surprise and managing for adaptation. 11. Hope, Vision, Symbolic and Iterative Change Sustainability recognizes that applying these sustainability principles as part of a broad strategic vision for the earth can generate hope in the future, and thus it will involve symbolic change that is part of many successive steps over generations.

Source: Adapted from Government of Western Australia (2003).

Long Term Economic Health Humans can live in many different habitats but cities have become the preferred habitation for half the world. The thousands of years of experimentation in cities, since agricultural surpluses were found to be tradable for various urban services, has created homo urbanus. Globalization of the economy has accelerated the growth of cities as the places where opportunities exist to participate in global economic and cultural activity. By the mid-1990s, based on economic opportunities, cities were growing on average at 2.3 per cent per year but rural areas at only 0.5 per cent per year (UNEP/Habitat 1996). Australian cities have firm strategies to accommodate growth, which seems inevitable. Decline or collapse is not on the agenda. However, long term views of history should include this possibility. Cities, and parts of cities, can collapse and die (Diamond 2005). If the economy is not firmly rooted in the reality of the city’s bioregion, its use of resources and its ability to adapt to change, then a city is unsustainable. The dark clouds on the horizon of cities include climate change and its threat to water supplies as well as the peaking of world oil production, which has fed the past century of urban economic growth (Campbell 1991; Deffeyes 2005; Kunstler 2005). Such threats to future urban growth should be taken seriously.

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Some commentators on apocalyptic possibilities suggest that cities are likely to be abandoned in favour of a new kind of ruralized urban area where everyone produces their own food and only local economies exist (Trainer 1995). Whilst recognizing the importance of local food and the bioregion, this option is unlikely. The history of cities shows that sharing services and the division of labour create far more opportunities. A return to Eden will not happen (Newman forthcoming). The forced ruralization programs of Pol Pot and Mao were economic and environmental disasters, apart from their social destruction, and their cities were soon rebuilt and refocused as the basis of their future. Nevertheless, economies must adapt to the reality of new challenges to sustainability. We build housing that will last around fifty to a hundred years, but markets only see six months or so ahead. Long-term planning and housing strategies that go beyond the market’s ability to respond and that can be built into a new sustainability agenda are needed. Critical to the new sustainability agenda in cities is managing car dependence. Increasingly a feature of planning strategies, managing car dependence is seen as a major factor in the economics of managing a city. All Australian cities now have metropolitan strategies emphasizing alternative transport infrastructure and more densely built centres and corridors based around public transport. What is the basis for this? Cities are shaped by transport priorities, increasingly understood in terms of the ‘Marchetti constant’ (Marchetti 1994). This travel time budget means that city residents travel, on average, no more than half an hour to work and half an hour home again. The Marchetti constant has universal application (Newman and Kenworthy 1999) and has been found in data on United Kingdom cities for six hundred years (SACTRA 1994). Historically this means: •

•

•

Walking cities were (and still are) dense, mixed-use areas, no more than 5 km across. This was the major urban form for 8000 years. The centres of Australian cities were formed and continue to function as walking cities. Transit cities, which developed 1850–1950, were based on trams and trains. This allowed them to spread 20–30 km with dense clusters of corridors following rail lines and stations. Most Australian cities, especially Melbourne and Sydney, grew rapidly in this era and retain their transit city corridors. Automobile cities, from the 1950s on, could spread 50 km in all directions and at low density. Since 1950, this form has dominated Australian urban development.

Australian housing can be classified in terms of these distinct urban forms, which shape how we use transport and create structures around which most urban issues are defined. For example, residents in the high density walking cities of Sydney and Melbourne use just 3–5 GJ of transport fuel per capita, the inner-area transit city residents use around 15–20 GJ per capita and the outer-area automobile city residents use 30–50 GJ per capita (Newman and Kenworthy 1999). Different economies tend to be emerging around these distinct urban forms. The walking city and the transit city are increasingly centres of wealth in the new

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economy and feature most urban services, including diverse transport options. The automobile city is finally reaching its Marchetti limits based on car dependent sprawl as well as other ecological limits discussed in other chapters of this book. The dense walking city and the medium density transit city have higher concentrations of service jobs partly due to the economies of scale and density required to ensure services can be provided but also due to different urban lifestyle preferences. Those with smaller houses and apartments generally spend less on maintaining their house and block and spend more on local services. Automobile city areas are more oriented to consumption and less to personal services, such as restaurants, health clubs, bookshops and cinemas. The differences in urban service provision reflect the diversity of the city and inherent resilience due to multifunctionality. However, equity issues relate to public transport limits in outer suburbs. Serious long-term economic problems are linked to car dependence. Not only will car-dependent cities be more vulnerable to peak oil, they already show vulnerability to global economic competition. Apparently, car dependence does not enhance the economy of cities. Car-dependent cities have the highest proportion of total transport costs as a proportion of city wealth. In a sample of 100 cities, rail-oriented cities were 43 per cent wealthier than car-oriented cities (Kenworthy and Laube 1999). This is understandable in terms of the sheer space taken up by cars (around twenty times more space compared to rail), the cost of road building, and the cost of driving. The future economic health of cities demands a more sustainable balance between different forms of transport. The overemphasis on car-based development must be replaced by a greater emphasis on transit-oriented centres in suburbs, on walking centres in the city business district and sub-regional centres and on housing built into these centres. The provision of more walking city centres and transit corridors need not be at the expense of economic health. In the City of Vancouver, the emphasis on high density walking-city redevelopment has been an economic success: over 50,000 people have moved into the area; there have been significant reductions in car use (31,000 fewer trips per day); and increases in walking and biking to 107,000 more trips per day (City of Vancouver 2006.) Equity and Human Rights Equity considerations drive a lot of public policy, especially in housing (see Chapter 16). Affordable housing has been a major driver shaping Australian cities in the past fifty years. Subsidized suburban infrastructure and assisted mortgages have supported the sprawl and car dependence of Australian cities. Only recently has the assumption of car dependence in housing policy been challenged. Australian cities now face an equity problem in which the lower income proportion of our society is increasingly located in outer, fringe and coastal peri-urban areas, with very few options for travel other than car use to link them to jobs and urban services. The wealthy have taken over the inner suburbs with most transport and service options. Inner suburban residents spend a very low proportion of their incomes on transport (less than 5 per cent) while outer suburban households spend as much as 30–40 per cent.

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Affordable housing strategies need to incorporate models that are not car dependent, such as the Vancouver policy for social housing in central and inner areas. Social housing is especially necessary in new middle and outer suburban centres. This might mean offering affordable houses in the form of more low-cost small units than in standard suburban developments (see Chapter 16). While such an approach is discounted by housing lobbyists who see cheap housing on cheap land at the urban fringe as the only affordable option, this traditional route to housing affordability is no longer sustainable (Newman 2002; 2004). Achieving a balance between fringe-based and density-based affordability is the new challenge for housing policy. It is feasible to build attractive apartment housing for less than $A100,000. Many of the oversized standard houses being built on Australia’s urban fringe are two to three times this price. Using density to create affordability includes the critical transport dimension, assuming that denser housing is built in centres well served by public transport or where services are provided within walking distance. Such well-placed development needs to be managed to achieve affordable housing benefits as the strong market for well-located housing means that developers gain high profits. Institutional responses must ensure a certain proportion of well-located units for social housing. Affordability in housing must include sustainability in water and power supplies. Building houses that leak energy or are poorly engineered for water harms the poorest and endangers the earth. The role of sustainability assessment in the development approvals system is critical to mandate ways of saving water and energy (see chapters 6 and 9). Biodiversity and Ecological Integrity The earth cannot be neglected in housing policy deliberations. The Melbourne Principles developed by the United Nations Environment Program to guide cities to become sustainable ecosystems (Newman and Jennings forthcoming) are being adopted by cities around the world to adapt developments to bioregions and especially to local biodiversity. The recent metropolitan strategies for Australian cities all stress this ecological factor in planning. Perth and Sydney, in particular, have acknowledged that their metropolitan areas are very high in biodiversity. Ecologist Steve Hopper has suggested Perth may have the highest biodiversity of any city in the world. The Sydney Basin was recently nominated the fifth most biologically diverse area out of 85 Australian bioregions. Nevertheless 267 species of plants and animals within the Sydney bioregion are listed as ‘threatened’, 35 per cent of all threatened species listed in NSW, despite the fact that Sydney covers only 5 per cent of the State (Department of Planning 2005). Both Perth and Sydney have well-established programs to protect key environmental areas. Perth has a mechanism for purchasing open space, a special Metropolitan Improvement Fund that buys up land ahead of the urban front or areas later discovered to be rich in biodiversity. New Land Release areas follow Perth’s approach to purchasing new biodiversity and open space areas through a land development levy managed by the NSW Growth Centres Commission. Almost half

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of Sydney is set aside as National Park, State Forest, regional and local open space, water catchments, wetlands and beaches. However, threats to biodiversity and ecological integrity are overwhelming. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) reports make grim reading: the loss of ecosystem function, which is the biggest threat to biodiversity, is clearly observable in 60 per cent of the 24 global ecosystems assessed. Ecosystem functioning and ecological integrity provide any city with: provisioning services (food, fresh water, fuel wood and genetic resources); regulating services (climate, disease and flood regulation); and cultural services (spiritual, recreational, aesthetic, inspirational and educational resources). The Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) did not focus on cities where many of the key policy levers for changing sustainability problems exist. Ways of regenerating bush and renewing waterways degraded by previous development are being created, especially in Sydney (Dixon 2006). Clearly there is a need to integrate housing responses to urban bioregions. Examples include Adelaide’s Christie Walk (see Chapter 3) and the Somerville ecovillage at Chidlow, Perth (WA). Ecovillages (Gilman 1991) are laboratories of sustainability innovation, often arising from a base of ecological integrity and involving new small-scale technologies. Lessons from such experiments need to be mainstreamed into urban policy. However, ecovillage experiments where people essentially become rural-based food producers whilst commuting to the city for work are not sustainable. They result in loss of good agricultural soils to fringe urban suburbs and hobby farms, which are generally unproductive. Australian residents in fringe urban areas, such as Sydney’s Central Coast and Melbourne’s Mornington Peninsular have three to four times the average fuel consumption, eight times that of an inner city resident. If we are serious about oil depletion and sustainability, we need to ensure that the countryside is more rural and the city more urban. Bioregional food production needs to be facilitated through mechanisms such as local food policy councils and community-supported agriculture. Australian cities can achieve this by establishing horticultural precincts immediately adjacent to cities. Such areas of good soil need to be set aside and retained in perpetuity for horticulture rather than being wasted as ‘market garden superannuation’ for the next suburb. In such areas, we can get serious about recycling waste water, as water agencies cannot invest in pipes and technology unless certain about the area’s future. This is a practical way for cities to protect the ecological integrity of their bioregions into the future whilst dealing with central resource issues. Settlement Efficiency and Quality of Life The best way to simply state the sustainability agenda for cities is summarized in efficient settlement and quality of life, a principle based on the Extended Metabolism Model (Newman and Kenworthy 1999), applied in the Australian State of the Environment report and in the metropolitan strategies of Sydney and Perth. This simple idea is a radical reform because cities have traditionally improved quality

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of life by increasing their ecological footprint. The only way to change this is at a fundamental structural level and through technological innovation. The most likely fundamental change will be for cities to localize infrastructure solutions. The modernist solution to infrastructure has been to apply ‘one best way’ at the broadest scale. Thus energy, water, waste and transport systems are very large scale and often at odds with recently acknowledged ecological and renewable options. Smaller-scale water systems have emerged with the local reuse of grey water, recycling of sewage into horticultural precincts, and trapping stormwater for reuse. Similar local-scale systems are emerging for energy with mini-grids that use renewables and with co-generation, such as in Japan (NEDO 2005). What is likely to happen is that small-scale systems will be grafted onto larger regional-scale technologies and integrated through clever electronic control systems. Thus localscale diversity will fit into regional-scale systems. This is also a model for rebuilding public transport infrastructure – regional-scale ‘backbones’ of fast rail feeding out into a myriad of small-scale systems around local centres. The transport solution will combine transport infrastructure and land-use policy as well as household education programs, such as TravelSmart, which have already successfully reduced car use. Approaches that reduce ecological footprints whilst improving urban services is recognized in all the recent metropolitan strategies in Australian cities, which are committed to policies that reduce car dependence. The major problems are not in the dense and mixed land use inner suburbs, relatively well served by public transport infrastructure, and where fuel consumption per person is comparable to European cities. Unfortunately poverty is concentrating in the newer suburbs in the outer areas built in the last half century, which are heavily car dependent, with fuel consumption similar to US cities. The looming problem of ‘peak oil’ makes efficient settlement an even higher priority. Global oil production is near to peaking, or has already peaked, resulting in the need to reduce oil consumption. The more sustainable city will be the more resilient city, not so vulnerable and dependent on oil, which will require fast transit and viable centres throughout the suburbs. The Sustainable Cities report of the Australian House of Representatives (2005) recommends the provision of infrastructure funds for cities, especially for rail, and particularly in the middle and outer suburbs. Most other national governments, even in the USA, provide such funds. Such a critical shift needs to be made in federal policy in Australia. Money for such infrastructure exists from substantial capital funds associated with the state of the deficit. Also a mechanism could be developed to invest superannuation funds in our cities. If an urban infrastructure program were started, partnership funding of the required rail systems and integrated transport programs would follow. Perth’s new rail system, which has cost $A2 billion and has given the city a 180 km modern electric rail system with 72 stations, was built without any federal funds. However, the freeway it passes down was funded almost entirely from federal coffers. This railway has been justified over many elections as a way of oil-proofing the city (Newman 2001). New developments are planned around these stations to take advantage of accessibility and amenity. Nevertheless, much of Perth, like all Australian cities, remains highly vulnerable to peak oil.

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Community, Regions, ‘Sense of Place’ and Heritage Sustainability in cities is finding new synergies with those who emphasize place and local identity. A sense of place can make a city more oriented to its basic ecology. However, as Seddon (1968, 2005) has shown, it is intensely human to belong, to relate to a local place through history and architecture, culture, food, music, and even football. The local food movement adds to this an ability to control the quality and environmental acceptability of food. But peak oil makes us see that we will need to be even more locally oriented in the future. In the ‘Long Emergency’, James Kunstler (2005) says that in response to peak oil, ‘Our lives will become profoundly and intensely local.’ Localism is the required modus operandi for the post-peak oil world, just as globalism was for the cheap oil era. Globalization of economies began as the first cities traded beyond their immediate region – probably 4000 years ago – and will continue post-peak oil. But its character will alter as the extent of trade and mobility is unsustainable. Peak oil will ensure more clever movement of goods globally. As mentioned, there are social movements pushing us more towards localism: the need for local identity and sense of place; the slow food movement and its base in local foods; the ecocity movement with its desire to enable local community to be the basis for managing local resources and local infrastructure. The value of the Internet and phone and computer video conference facilities will become even more obvious to maintain global interaction. In the same way that governments facilitated businesses to export globally and pushed international tourism, they need to facilitate localism now. Demonstration models need to be funded: where there is a need to create industrial ecology of businesses to share wastes as resources or work together to ensure local resources are used and reused; where local food linkages can be made between peri-urban growers and urban communities to directly supply fresh goods; where local enterprises can be facilitated and based on local resources and talents; and where local tourism can be marketed to local people. Such initiatives will help create a deeper sense of place whilst simultaneously reducing the ecological footprint. Net Benefit from Development Finding ‘net benefit’ from all development so that it can provide a legacy of ‘enduring value’ is the most practical way of demonstrating sustainability (Newman et al. 2005). Sustainability assessment is a way governments can address development approvals (Pope et al. 2004). This approach grew out of major resource projects in WA but sustainability assessment can be applied in other cities’ strategic plans and through statutory development assessment processes (Newman 2005). Many local governments have sustainability scorecards. The NSW BASIX building sustainability system requires all new developments to design for 40 per cent less water and 25 per cent less greenhouse gas use than average homes and Victoria has similar requirements (Reardon 2005, Section 1.10). Recently, more complete sustainability assessments have been done on projects, such as Sydney’s new land

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release areas (NSW Department of Planning 2007), introducing a ‘policy gateway’ style approach already implemented by some European governments (Sustainable European Regions 2007). Common Good from Planning Town planning attempted to achieve common good from development, a principle that needs reinterpreting for each new age. Today it means planning for sustainability (Newman 2003; 2005). The new metropolitan strategies will probably be seen as attempts at this. To achieve common-good outcomes, mechanisms to buy public space and build infrastructure are required. The biggest threat to achieving common-good outcomes is the public–private partnership (PPPs) for infrastructure. PPP in the transport sector have been thrust into the public policy spotlight by the Cross City Tunnel controversy in Sydney, which has demonstrated how an infrastructure project funded entirely by the private sector can undermine local accessibility and public transport in order to ensure profits. Such PPPs totally undermine the basic approach of sustainability, which seeks to achieve common-good outcomes. Australian cities have a critical need for infrastructure that can support more sustainable outcomes, in particular, in water and transport. Rail systems, with the exception of Perth, are not fit for the purpose, whilst traffic growth is out of hand and the problems of car dependence continue. Funding such infrastructure has reached a fork in the road – or the tracks. Australia can choose either a more traditional PPP where governments find most of the capital or a more experimental PPP where the private sector finds most of the capital. There are problems with either approach, but the reality is that cities cannot wait for a perfect model; they desperately need help right now. I prefer a publicly funded infrastructure model based on evidence of State government planning and assessment processes to achieve common-good outcomes. The Perth rail system shows that a modern Australian city can build a competitive and efficient rail option using public funds. All Australian cities have plans to direct priorities towards new and revamped public transport systems with centres and corridors to reduce car dependence. However, this option needs federal government support. It cannot work because State governments favour health and education, unless designated capital funds are unlocked from Canberra. If not, then we must head down the path of the privately based PPP, with all its risks and questions about the common good. Integration Planners talk about ‘balance’ in making decisions, which is often code for ‘trade-offs’. Sustainability wrestles with problems to make trade-offs unnecessary or minimal (Gibson et al. 2005). To avoid trade-offs, space must be made for ‘policy learning’ to occur in the system of decision making. Inherent conflicts that arise when traditional approaches and disciplines reach their limits must be resolved through new kinds of

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dialogues. My experiences wrestling with sustainability with governments across Australia reveal that opportunities for creating sustainable solutions are facilitated when a kind of ‘magic’ happens, with innovative solutions emerging from such dialogues (Newman forthcoming). Accountability, Transparency and Engagement Sustainability recognizes that: • • • •

People should have access to information on sustainability issues. Institutions should have triple bottom line accountability on an annual basis. Regular sustainability audits of programs and policies should be conducted. Public engagement lies at the heart of all sustainability principles.

The magical solutions to sustainability problems that evolve from new kinds of dialogue only occur when part of the ‘policy learning’ process involves community engagement (see Chapter 11). Processes of deliberative democracy have become totally enmeshed in what sustainability means for cities and regions. The approach taken in Perth to develop a Dialogue for the City was the core thrust behind the Network City Plan (Hartz-Karp and Newman 2006). A similar process involving citizens randomly invited from the electoral role to be a ‘citizen for the day’ was attempted in Sydney at over twenty small public engagement sessions and led to Sydney’s Metropolitan Strategy. All Australian cities have similar projects. Politics will always be part of planning in cities, but the processes of community engagement will enable much of the learning necessary for any public debate. Sustainability can only be a legitimate approach to the city if it encompasses the values of its citizens about their long-term visions for the city. Precaution The precautionary principle is sometimes identified as an unnecessary barrier to action. However, avoiding activities when we are unsure of the consequences can also force us to do more work. In planning it is obvious that we should not build on flood plains or coastal dunes, where water hazards might damage artificial constructions. However, it is not clear what risks are associated with climate change or peak oil. Adaptation strategies are only beginning to be discussed and research to ascertain the best strategies are not nearly as well funded as detailed scenarios of potential terrorist attacks. Strategic research on how our cities need to adapt to inevitable physical limits must become the highest priority. In a sustainability context, the precautionary principle should also mean that we do not risk social and economic capital in irreversible ways. Rebuilding our cities to reduce car dependence is an example of a policy that can enhance natural, social and financial capital.

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Vision and Hope Historically, demonstrations are at the core of advancing sustainability in cities. Every Australian city has icon commercial buildings, ecohouses for display, and a range of other sustainability demonstrations, such as the Perth hydrogen fuel-cell buses. The next stage is mainstreaming these demonstrations into policy packages. We have strong examples, so now we need strategic visions that feed these innovations into a series of successive steps over generations. This is how we can create hope in our cities based on sustainability. References Campbell, C. (1991), The Golden Age of Oil 1950–2050: The Depletion of a Resource (Dordrecht: Kluwer). City of Vancouver (2006), Transportation Plan (Vancouver BC: City of Vancouver). Department of Planning (2005), City of Cities: A Plan for Sydney’s Future (Sydney: NSW Government). Deffeyes, K. (2005), Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert’s Peak (New York: Hill and Wang). Diamond, J. (2005), Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking Books). Dixon, P. (2006), ‘Opportunities Within the Urban Footprint for Ecological Sustainability. What Landscape Architects Can Do to Work Towards This and the Problems Encountered with Current Design and Planning’ [paper] Australian Institute of Landscape Seminar, Sydney, 2 May. Gibson R., Hassan, S., Holtz, S., Tansey, J. and Whitelaw, G. (2005), Sustainability Assessment Criteria, Processes and Applications (London: Earthscan Publications). Gilman, R. (1991), ‘The Eco-Village Challenge’, In Context 29. Government of Western Australia (2003), Hope for the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy (Perth: Department of the Premier and Cabinet). Hartz-Karp, J. and Newman, P. (2006), ‘The Participative Route to Sustainability’, in Paulin (ed.). House of Representatives (2005), Sustainable Cities (Canberra: Parliament House). Jonker, J. and DeWitte, M. (eds) (2005), Management Models for CSR: A Comprehensive Overview (Heidelberg: Springer Verlag – Management Sciences). Kenworthy, J. and Laube, F. (1999), ‘The Significance of Rail in Building Competitive and Effective Urban Public Transport Systems: An International Perspective’, Global Mass Transit, November, 69–74. Kunstler, J. (2005), The Long Emergency: Surviving the End of the Oil Age, Climate Change, and Other Converging Catastrophes of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press).

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Laird, P., Newman, P., Kenworthy, J. and Bachels, M. (2001), Back on Track: ReThinking Australian and New Zealand Transport Policy (Sydney: UNSW Press). Low, N. and Gleeson, B. (eds) (2003), Making Urban Transport Sustainable (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). Marchetti, C. (1994), ‘Anthropological Invariants in Travel Behaviour’, Technical Forecasting and Social Change 47:1, 75–78. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), [website], , accessed 5 December 2006. NEDO (2005), Safeguarding the Future of the Earth: Environment and Energy (Tokyo: National Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization). NSW Department of Planning (2007), Metro Strategy [website], , accessed 16 January 2007. Newman, P. (2001), ‘Railways and Reurbanisation in Perth’, in Williams and Stimson (eds). Newman, P. (2002), Sustainability and Housing: More Than a Roof Overhead [the 9th Annual F. Oswald Barnett Oration] (Hawthorn: Swinburne University of Technology). Newman, P. (2003), ‘Global Cities, Transport, Energy and the Future: Will Ecosocialisation Reverse the Historic Trends?’, in Low and Gleeson (eds). Newman, P. (2004), ‘Sustainability and Global Cities’, Australian Planner 41:4, 27–28. Newman, P. (2005), ‘Sustainability Assessment and Cities’, International Review of Environmental Strategies 5:2, 383–98. Newman, P. (2006), ‘After Oil: Will Our Cities and Regions Collapse?’ [submission to the Senate Inquiry into Australia’s Future Oil Supply and Alternative Transport Fuels], Australian Parliament House [website], , accessed 2 January 2007. Newman, P. (forthcoming), ‘Can the Magic of Sustainability Survive Professionalism?’, in Sheldon, C. (ed.) Environmental Professionalism And Sustainability: Too Important to Get Wrong (London: Greenleaf Books). Newman, P. and Jennings, I. (forthcoming), Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems (Kobe: UNEP-ITEC). Newman, P. and Kenworthy J. (1999), Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence (Washington DC: Island Press). Newman, P., Stanton-Hicks, E., and Hammond, B. (2005), ‘From CSR to Sustainability Through Enduring Value’, in Jonker and DeWitte (eds). Paulin, S. (ed.) (2006), Communities Doing It for Themselves: Creating Space for Sustainability (Perth: University of Western Australia Press). Pope, J., Annandale, D. and Morrison-Saunders, A. (2004), ‘Conceptualising Sustainability Assessment’, Environmental Impact Assessment Review 24, 595–616. Reardon, C. (ed.) (2005), Your Home Technical Manual, 3rd Edition. (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office). SACTRA (1994), Trunk Roads and the Generation of Traffic (London: Department of Transport).

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Seddon, G. (1968), Sense of Place: A Response to an Environment, the Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia (Perth: UWA Press). Seddon, G. (2005), The Old Country: Australian Landscapes, Plants and People (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press). Sustainable European Regions (2007), SER [website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Trainer, T. (1995), The Conserver Society: Alternatives for Sustainability (London: Zed Books). UNEP/Habitat (1996), An Urbanizing World: Global Report on Human Settlements (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Williams, J. and Stimson, R. (eds) (2001), Case Studies in Planning Success (New York: Elsevier).

Chapter 3

Ecopolis: Concepts, Initiatives and the Purpose of Cities Paul F. Downton

Introduction The ecological polis, ‘ecopolis’, defines the purpose of a city: minimizing ecological footprints (biophysical) and maximizing human potential (human ecology) in order to repair, replenish and support processes that maintain life. As the basis for strategic planning for translation into effective policy, this chapter presents four key propositions, ten core principles, and seven steps towards ecological city making. Using the concept of urban fractals, demonstration projects, it explores challenges to achieving sustainable practices, such as institutional inertia, in a world threatened by climate change. Ecopolis Making and maintaining cities creates the greatest human impact on the biosphere so it is vital to understand their processes and purpose. A city is more than the sum of its buildings. Cities include services and infrastructure that consume energy and land. First and foremost, a city is a place of culture (Register 1987). For our species to survive, we need a culture that creates urban ecosystems that contribute to the ecological health of the biosphere. The ecopolis is the next, perhaps most important, evolutionary step in urbanism: built to fit its place, co-operating with nature, a place of human culture that consciously sustains the cycles of atmosphere, water, nutrients and biology in healthy balance whilst empowering the powerless, feeding the hungry, and sheltering the homeless. Although the ecopolis is about creating human environments specific to their time and place, the concept is timeless and universal. To create appropriate places for everyone, in every land, for all time, cities need to be different, reflecting the unique characteristics of peoples, places and times. This ‘universal regionalism’ can only come about through the persistent application of principles embedded in an explicit culture of city making. The challenge is to embed processes that are as natural to life in cities as bones are in bodies.

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Three Urban Fractals Models and strategies are required for eco-neighbourhoods in urban areas in order to practically demonstrate innovative and appropriate solutions which could be readily applied by other neighbourhoods. (Rudlin and Dodd 1998, 2.)

Since 1991, attempts to apply and test the developing theory of ‘ecopolis’ have been undertaken by the author and colleagues in South Australia in three projects initiated through the non-profit group, Urban Ecology Australia Inc. (UEA), and sustained by substantial community effort. The projects tested propositions (outlined later in this chapter): that a city is part of its region (Proposition 1); that there was enough extant knowledge and adequate techniques and technologies to begin making ecological cities (Proposition 2); and that the driving force for change depended on ‘communities’ and ‘active citizenship’ (Proposition 3). Each project was conceived as an ecopolis in microcosm, ‘urban fractals’ able to be repeated and scaled up or down whilst retaining the essential aspects of the original (Proposition 4). Christie Walk In the heart of Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, lies a small urban village, a living community that demonstrates every aspect of urban sustainability on just 2000 m2 (half an acre). Named ‘Christie Walk’, in memory of environmental and social activist Scott Christie, this small urban fractal was recognized with an international Asia Pacific Forum for Environment and Development (2006) award for outstanding achievement in the promotion of socially equitable and sustainable development in the region. Constructed in a six-year period, knitted into the fabric of its neighbourhood, it is a fraction of an ecocity and has been used to test many of the precepts and principles of the ecopolis. A key aspect of Christie Walk is its location in the most mixed-use, least wealthy and most culturally diverse part of Adelaide, which required the designers to address complex inner-urban contexts (Reardon 2005, Section 7.3). However, the context supplied solutions as well as challenges: transport energy use is minimized by the proximity to public transport and walkable distances to major urban facilities. Twentyseven dwellings, including an apartment building with community facilities on one street frontage, have been built on a total site area equivalent to two quarter-acre blocks. Residents have planned, organized and managed community gardens, including South Australia’s first ‘intensive’ roof garden. Several housing types are represented, some linked physically and all connected through landscaping that has been designed to be an integral part of the passive climate response of the dwellings. This project expresses important aspects of ecopolis practice, including: • •

Community processes and structures based on mutual aid and direct democracy. Consideration of social impacts related to financial decision making (involving Community Aid Abroad Ethical Investment Trust and Bendigo Community Bank).

Ecopolis: Concepts, Initiatives and the Purpose of Cities

•

• •

33

Indicating how design can integrate sustainability technologies – healthy construction, water capture and reuse, solar power, and innovative on-site sewage treatment linked to irrigation of a nearby public park. Showing how urban form reduces transport demands and high densities facilitate community and conviviality. Demonstrating how appropriate technology and funding reinforce local community processes to achieve sustainable human ecological development.

Observe (Table 3.1) the advantages of Christie Walk compared with a conventional development, according to significant measures of sustainability. Developed without any support from governments, the Christie Walk fractal would be much easier to replicate within a policy environment that assisted communities to engage with the complicated spheres of construction, finance and development. Table 3.1

Christie Walk compared with a conventional development

Features Site area Number of dwellings Productive landscape Productive roof area Resource conservation, including material recycling/reuse Energy efficiency Non-toxic construction Community space Stormwater capture Effluent treatment Renewable energy Community engagement Educational programs Diversity of dwelling types

Conventional Development 2000 m2 24 200 m2 NONE NO

Christie Walk 2000 m2 27 700 m2 170 m2 YES

NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES

Whyalla EcoCity Development Following several moderately successful public workshops, a 15 ha site in the heart of Whyalla, South Australia, was zoned an ‘ecocity’ with subsequent developments and modifications on site. The Whyalla EcoCity Development attracted a critical mass of support in a city of just 27,000 people. Whyalla had a significant group of citizens who understood and were committed to the ecocity vision, many closely associated with local religious and cultural organisations. Pressure from economic reductionists seeking to replace community areas with commercial concerns tested their knowledge and advocacy skills. They would have benefited enormously from a council that practised policy consistency with the original project goals. Most significantly, the partial physical realization of the Whyalla EcoCity Development

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has had less impact than the continued international influence of the theoretical Halifax EcoCity Project (Downton 1994; 1996; 1998). Halifax EcoCity Project During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Halifax EcoCity Project (HEP) coevolved with the UEA, which had convened the 1992 Second International EcoCity Conference. The HEP proposal for an ecocity microcosm for 800 people – community facilities, cafés, shops, offices, an ecology centre, marketplace, and so on – was conceived as a means of catalysing redevelopment in the City of Adelaide and as a device for promulgating development that integrated social justice and community control with strong ecological goals. The car-free, mixed-use proposal of three to five storeys followed a similar density to traditional European cities. Environmental targets included: reducing the ecological footprint of the neighbourhood to an ecologically sustainable level, analysing life cycle costs and impacts, applying ecological design principles and environmental purchasing criteria, eliminating fossil fuels for power and heat, creating a closed water system, exploring food production possibilities, reducing car use and developing community planning. An important goal of the HEP was to influence the wider community and raise consciousness of the potential of urban development action and community-based politics. The project’s success can be seen in the number of academic citations and courses that have incorporated the project as a case study, publications that refer to the project, media reports, exhibitions, and awards received for, or because of, the project. For instance, Rudlin and Dodd (1998, 1–3) identified the HEP as an ecological development case study exemplifying a genuine sustainable urban neighbourhood. The HEP catalysed the creation of Christie Walk and, in the Ecopolis Now video documentary (Stegman 2000), it was referred to as the ‘Holy Grail’ of urban environmentalism, indicating that virtual cultural fractals can be effective too. Similar to the Whyalla project, the HEP might have been realized had city council policy makers not compromised on their initial publicly expressed support. Though the HEP never eventuated as a physical edifice, it remains a cultural construct and historical experiment in participatory, community development (Orszanski 1993). Theory and Definition A ‘sustainable city’ enables all its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being without damaging the natural world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future. (Girardet 2000.)

This is just one of numerous definitions of sustainable, green and ecological cities alongside claims to be ecological cities, notably Curitiba, Brazil, for its early hubris and influence. There has been no widely accepted, functional definition of an ecological city except as a place that Douglas Adams (1979) might have termed ‘mostly harmless’.

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Just as a biologist opens a biology textbook and fails to find a definition of ‘life’, so those of us concerned with the fate of cities and the sustenance of our environment imagine that we know what a city is, yet lack a clear, shared definition of its fundamental purposes. To open the debate and establish some ground rules, I address the question of why we make cities and provide a testable definition of an ecological city. Cities have to be more than ‘mostly harmless’. Today, they must support massive human populations, and repair and redress the enormous natural damage that humans have already done. I propose that an ecological city is exemplified by the concept of the ecopolis, where citizens consciously intervene and manage the sustainability of the biophysical environmental processes of a region. In other words, citizens of the urban ecosystem fit human activity within the constraints of the biosphere whilst creating housing and urban environments that sustain human culture. In its full realization, the ecopolis is a manifestation of a developed ecological culture, standing in contrast to the expressions of exploitative culture in our present-day cities. I say ‘ecopolis’, rather than ‘ecocity’, to reinforce the definitional links between social and environmental purposes. ‘Eco’ refers to ecological purpose and ‘polis’ to the ideas and ideals of governance that encompass community and self-determination. I adopted the term in 1989, constructing the word from first principles, partly in response to the term ‘multifunction polis’ then prevalent in Australia. The ecopolis has been independently discovered or constructed internationally (Koskiaho 1994), adopted by others (Girardet 2004) and used to name international conferences (UEA 2006). The ecopolis is about the way we organize knowledge, how we see ourselves and define the purpose of cities. I suggest that architecture and planning be redefined as the art and science, theory and practice, of creating sustainable human settlement – subsets of urban ecology (Brueste et al. 1998). In the early days of the ecocity movement it was not unusual to hear the comment that an ‘ecological city’ was an oxymoron. The ‘mostly harmless’ definition of sustainable cities reflects a failure of the imagination, a fear about making more mistakes, about trying to do as little bad as possible. What if we set out to be genuinely ‘good’ instead? (McDonough and Braungart 2002, 67). Ecopolis Development Principles Drafted in association with Chérie Hoyle and Emilis Prelgauskas, the initial twelve Ecopolis Development Principles were intended as a set of precepts for developing human settlement that restored, rather than destroyed, ecological health, minimizing biophysical ecological footprints (Rees and Wackernagel 1996). The revised version (Downton 2006) has ten principles divided into biophysical and biosocial, informed by the work of Norbert Schulz from Germany, an intern at UEA, in 1995: Biophysical Principles (minimize ecological footprints) 1. Restore Degraded Land: use urban development to restore health and vitality

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of land. 2. Fit the Bioregion: create human settlements that work with region’s natural cycles. 3. Balance Development: balance development with the ‘carrying capacity’ of the land. 4. Create Compact Cities: reverse sprawl and stop ad hoc developments in landscapes. 5. Optimize Energy Performance: generate and use energy efficiently. Human Ecology Principles (maximize human potential) 6. Contribute to the Economy: create work opportunities and promote economic activity. 7. Provide Health and Security: create healthy and safe environments for all people. 8. Encourage Community: cities are for everyone. 9. Promote Social Justice and Equity: equal rights/access to services, facilities and information. 10. Enrich History and Culture: respect the past. Look to the future. Celebrate diversity. Overtaken by Glaciers Making cities requires consideration of timescales that exceed the attention span of conventional commerce and politics. This is a problem. If cities are to be kept on the path of ecological fitness over time there must be concomitant socio-cultural structures and institutions to manage their passage. Brand (1999) draws attention to the lack of institutions or decision-making systems that deal with very long-term planning in contrast with traditional cultures that commonly looked back and forth across several generations. Technology can hinder or facilitate cultural attitudes. The hegemony of unhealthy, energy-hungry, central air-conditioning systems has been partly due to the idea that any building could be made comfortable by plugging in a machine and flicking a switch. According to the canons of the architectural priesthood, this allowed ‘design freedom’ by separating the function of the building envelope from the need to moderate the climate. Conversely, ecocity design is understood and practised as a rich process of engagement by living creatures with their environment and with each other. It eschews the linear, compartmentalized process favoured by industrial society; it needs to be developmental, and it requires careful, continuous maintenance. It requires use of technology and management of a different kind than that bequeathed by militarism and production-line manufacturing processes. It is ironic that, just as the realization is dawning that human systems and institutions need to accommodate and adapt to the long, slow rates of change of natural systems, the climate is moving. Glaciers are overtaking us, changing the world faster than our institutions. Climate change requires a heightened alertness to the bio-geophysical environment and constant activity to keep pace with the changes

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in natural systems precipitated by human affairs. However, there is a danger that institutional responses will continue to change too slowly and that policy-making will remain based on ‘more of the same’ thinking. Seven Steps and Four Propositions Although modern planning systems, including the New Urbanism, acknowledge the importance of land use they rarely apply available knowledge with the kind of practical ecological sensitivity demonstrated by McHarg (1971). The seven steps identified in the sustainable human ecological development (SHED) process (Table 3.2) are designed to reinforce the need to integrate land use planning with every aspect of making ecocities. For instance, Richard Register (1987) points out the positive potential of tall buildings, provided that there is a diversity of activities in such developments. Tall buildings save land for agriculture; promote energy saving by reducing travelling distances; make commerce, culture and social diversity more easily available; and, with imagination, can include multilevel greenhouses and roof gardens (such as the one at Christie Walk). Register reminds us that cities are threedimensional entities, not flat maps, and asserts that a vital social life is essential for any community claiming to be ecological. The seven steps can be interpreted as a basis for framing policy and constructing planning and development programs. SHED connects human and non-human life through the flow of water within ecosystems. A topographic built-form relationship between region and habitation is identifiable through their respective capacities and functions as shedders of water. Biological processes dominate the first four steps and provide the context for all the others, which highlight community processes. Although numbered sequentially, any practical step in the SHED process may come first. Table 3.2

Processes within Sustainable Human Ecological Development (SHED) Steps SHED 1. Shedding – identifies the biophysical context and its inherent developmental constraints for city-making: watersheds; bioregions; design with nature (McHarg 1971); carrying capacity; ecological footprints; environmental space.

SHED 2. Placing – explores cultural and spiritual aspects of a bioregional analysis (Sale 1991), placing people, seeking non-physical structures as a basis for maintaining deep continuities: genius loci; spiriting (discovering spirit of place); geomancy; feng shui; re-inhabitation (Berg 1981).

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SHED 3. Biozoning – locates food and biological resource sites on the basis of proximity or energy planning: biome identification; soil analysis; integrated land management techniques; permaculture.

SHED 4. Lifelining – identifies and maps the minimum weave of ecosystem elements vital to continued ecosystem connectivity and functionality: living links; island biogeography; ecological corridors; waterways; keylines (Yeomans 1971); ecological restoration; natural infrastructure; interface between urban and pre-urban ecological structure; conservation and restoration. SHED 5: Proximating – locates cultural, social, economic and community resource centres on the basis of proximity or least energy planning: human links, proximity planning, designing and ‘registering’(Register 1987); recognising historical somatic energy patterns of pre-industrial ‘walkable’ urban form; exchange space (Engwicht 1992), markets and meeting places. An example is the city square in the urban fabric. The seven steps are about setting architecture and planning within the real biophysical and biosocial realities of place – part of the conscious making of ecological civilization, instead of attempting to incorporate sustainable processes within architecture and planning. Barton (2000, 28) said: ‘The real challenge facing us is not one of building eco-villages, but of making the modern city, and the way of life lived in it, environmentally sustainable.’ The intertwined relationships between cities, place and culture, and human and biophysical ecology may be understood through four propositions about the necessary conditions for making ecocities (Downton 2002): • • • •

City-region: a city is part of its place. Integrated knowledge: all knowledge must be integrated (harnessed/holistic). Cultural change: eco-cities need to establish strong cultural structures that recognize social and ecological interdependency. Cultural (urban) fractals: Small demonstration projects are vital as catalysts for cultural change.

The Frogstick – An Urban Ecology Checklist Environmental indicators are essential for measuring ecological performance in urban design and planning. Many such indicators have been created during the last decade.

Ecopolis: Concepts, Initiatives and the Purpose of Cities

Table 3.3

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Example of a Frogstick Score Sheet for the City of Adelaide

Away from -10 Sustainability 1. Air Pollutes 2. Water Pollutes/wastes X 3. Earth (soil) Destroys 4. Fire (energy) Non-renewable 5. Biomass Decreases X 6. Food Consumes 7. Bio-diversity Decreases X 8. Habitat Destroys 9. Ecolinks Reduces X 10. Resources Wastes X Total Performance

-7.5

-5 X X

X X X

-50 -22.5 -10

-2.5 +2.5

+5

+7.5 +10 Towards Sustainability Purifies Purifies/recycles Renews Renewable Increases/stable Creates Increases Creates Increases Recycles/reuses - 82.5%

The ‘frogstick’ (Downton 1991, 54) was inspired by Wells (1981, 33–40) – ‘frog’ because this species is so sensitive to its environment that its presence or absence in a preferred habitat provides an indication of the habitat’s relative health. Designed for novices to understand, elements of the frogstick measure can be adapted and augmented to in-depth scientific enquiry (see example in Table 3.3). This checklist addresses minimizing the ecological footprint in the physical environment (a similar one is required to maximize human potential in the social environment). Conclusion In reviewing the case studies, it can be seen that HEP and Christie Walk were selfdirected social experiments undertaken by people who freely chose to be part of an innovative, non-government initiative. The HEP managed to achieve semilegendary status as an example of something genuinely achievable, whilst Christie Walk reinforced its credibility by being a partial ‘microcosmic’ realization of the HEP. They express the four propositions detailed in this chapter: • •

• •

The three projects were all designed in a consciously determined relationship to their broader regional contexts. The concepts, principles and techniques required to create human settlements that fit within the ecological systems of the biosphere whilst sustaining their biogeochemical functionality do exist. The creation of ecocities will depend on cultural change to transform the deep cultural inertia in local government. Each project depended on a created community with shared ideas and preparedness to translate those ideas into activity. Whether the broader community can be more completely involved with a relatively high level of consciousness of its evolutionary role can only be tested in time.

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The role of the community as a system of mutual aid based on direct democracy is central to the ecopolis idea. Catalysing urban cultural fractals can only occur with a high level of participation in their design, development and maintenance by the wider community. Whilst government policy makers can assist or hinder communitybased processes, they are unlikely to successfully initiate ecopolis projects. Direct democracy and active citizenship (as opposed to passive consumerism) require approaches to architecture, planning and urban design that are as responsive to the body politic and social demands as they are to the sun, the weather, and the living processes of the biosphere. Community-based ‘bottom up’ planning strategies, rather than ‘top down’ planning strategies, are fundamental to the foundation and sustenance of any ecologically viable human settlement in the long term. The role of policy makers is to actively assist urban communities by providing a coherent framework for retrofitting or new building projects, in existing urban environments or in new towns and cities. It is time to define the purpose of cities and bring our understanding of that purpose into line with urgent concerns for sustainability and the health of humans and the biosphere. Now the purpose of the city must be to create an environment that generates health and enhances ecological sustainability. This is a major historical shift with substantial implications for policy makers. Making cities is really about the creation and management of complex living systems, and cities are the primary habitats for human survival now. The developing theory of the ecopolis is predicated on an approach to the making of architecture and cities that defines them as potential living systems, as extensions of the human organism. Just as the constructions of living creatures can be seen as extensions of their physiology (Turner 2000, 27), buildings and cities can be conceived as components of living systems. This line of thinking promises a rich field of enquiry. If the making and maintenance of cities were analysed in terms of their being extended phenotypes of the human gene, it might be possible to look forward to achieving a kind of unified theory of urban ecology. Architecture and associated creative activity could then be seen as integral to life processes, as ways of making our habitat function better and increasing our chance of survival as a species through a purposeful, goal-directed approach to city making. References Adams, D. (1979), The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (London: Pan Books). Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I. and Angel, S. (1977), A Pattern Language (New York: Oxford University Press). Asia Pacific Forum for Environment and Development (2006), APFED Awards [website], Winners 2006 [webpage], , accessed 1 January 2007. Ball, P. (1999), The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in Nature (New York: Oxford University Press). Barton, H. (ed.) (2000), Sustainable Communities: The Potential for EcoNeighbourhoods (London: Earthscan).

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Berg, P. (1981), ‘Devolving Beyond Global Monoculture’, CoEvolution Quarterly 32:Winter, 24–30. Bookchin, M. (1991), ‘Libertarian Municipalism – An Overview’, Green Perspectives 24. Bookchin, M. (1986), The Limits of the City (Montréal-Buffalo: Black Rose Books). Bookchin, M. (1992), Urbanization Without Cities – The Rise and Decline of Citizenship (Montréal: Black Rose Books, Institute of Policy Alternatives). Brand, S. (1997), How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built, Revised Edition. (London: Phoenix Illustrated/Orion). Brand, S. (1999), The Clock of the Long Now: Time and Responsibility (London: Phoenix). Breuste, J., Feldmann, H. and Uhlmann, O. (eds) (1998), Urban Ecology (Berlin: Springer-Verlag). Downton, P. (1991), ‘Solar Cities for a Sustainable World – Making Places Fit for Frogs’, Proceedings Solar 91 – Energy for a Sustainable World Volume 1 (Adelaide: Australian and New Zealand Solar Energy Society and Flinders University of South Australia). Downton, P. (1994), The Halifax EcoCity Project – A Community Driven Development (Adelaide: Centre for Urban Ecology). Downton, P. (ed.) (1996), EcoCity Whyalla [Booklets 1–7] (Adelaide: Centre for Urban Ecology). Downton, P. (1998), ‘Adelaide and Whyalla: The Practice of Urban Ecology in Two Australian Eco-City Projects’, in J. Breuste et al. (eds). Downton, P. (2002), ‘Ecopolis: Towards an Integrated Theory for the Design, Development and Maintenance of Ecological Cities’ [Unpublished thesis] Submitted to Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Adelaide. Downton, P. (2006), Ecopolis [website], and , accessed 16 January 2007. Engwicht, D. (1992), Towards an Eco-City – Calming the Traffic (Sydney: Envirobook). Girardet, H. (2000), ‘Cities, People, Planet’, Schumacher Lectures, April, Liverpool. Girardet, H. (2004), Cities People Planet: Liveable Cities For a Sustainable World (Chichester: Wiley Academy). Koskiaho B. (1994), Ecopolis – Conceptual, Methodological and Practical Implementations of Urban Ecology (Finland: Ministry of the Environment). McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. (2002), Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York: North Pint Press). McHarg, I. (1971), Design with Nature (New York: Doubleday/Natural History Press). Orszanski, R. (1993), ‘The Design and Production of EcoCities: A Case Study of the Halifax Project’ [Unpublished Masters dissertation] Submitted to Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Adelaide.

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Reardon, C. (ed.) (2005), Your Home Technical Manual, 3rd Edition (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office). Rees, W. and Wackernagel, M. (1996), Our Ecological Footprint – Reducing Human Impact on the Earth (Gabriola Island/Philadelphia: New Society Publishers). Register, R. (1987), Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books). Rudlin, D. and Dodd, N. (1998), ‘Eco-Neighbourhoods: A Brief for a Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood’, Sun Dial: The Journal of the Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood Initiative 6: Spring, 1–3. Sale, K. (1991), Dwellers in the Land: The Bioregional Vision (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers). Stegman, S. (2000), Ecopolis Now [video documentary]. Turner, J. (2000), The Extended Organism: The Physiology of Animal-built Structures (Cambridge/London: Harvard University Press). UEA (2006), Urban Ecology Australia [website], , accessed 6 January 2007. Wells, M. (1981), Gentle Architecture (New York: McGraw-Hill). Yeomans, P. (1971), The City Forest – The Keyline Plan for the Human Environment (Sydney: Keyline Publishing).

Chapter 4

Permaculture: Design Principles for Urban Sustainability Dick Copeman

Introduction Australian cities are unsustainable. Water use exceeds available supplies, food systems are unsustainable, energy use contributes to global warming, climates are warming and drying, and traffic jams are worsening, as are economic inequality, family breakdown and social disruption. Rather than piecemeal solutions to these problems, what we urgently need is a design approach that offers a holistic program for sustainable living in cities. Permaculture offers such an approach. Permaculture is a design system that can help Australian cities become environmentally sustainable and socially equitable. A movement of people who, in backyards, community gardens and elsewhere, is slowly but surely changing the face of our cities, the voice of permaculture needs to be heard in discussions about densification and decentralization, social equity and inclusion, and how to involve citizens and communities in planning for sustainability in our cities. While the philosophy and methods of permaculture have been mainly applied at the grassroots, permaculture ethics and principles can guide the work of planners, regulators and developers to produce sustainable solutions to current problems with water, waste, transport, energy and food supply. This chapter outlines a permaculture approach to sustainable housing and urban design in Australia. What is Permaculture? Permaculture arose out of a growing awareness in the 1960s and 1970s that the environment was in crisis. At that time, ecology was coming of age as a separate discipline. Bill Mollison and David Holmgren devised ‘permaculture’, a system of applied ecology that drew upon ‘observation of natural systems, the wisdom contained in traditional farming systems and modern scientific and technological knowledge’ to achieve ‘a design system for creating sustainable human environments’ (Mollison with Slay 1991, 1). David Holmgren (2002, xix) has defined permaculture in more detail as a system for creating: ‘consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of local needs. It is a vision of permanent (sustainable) human culture based on permanent (sustainable) agriculture’.

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Permaculture includes three ethics and twelve design principles that encapsulate the ways in which people can manage land and plan and construct houses, gardens, farms and communities sustainably and equitably. The ethics of permaculture are care of the earth, care of people and share surplus resources. Equal emphasis is given to human wellbeing and to environmental protection, which differentiates permaculture from both the ecocentric, deep ecology perspective and also from the anthropocentric, social ecology perspective. It is true that, as Brendan Gleeson (2006, 160) says, ‘Only just human institutions and tolerant caring societies can produce lasting solutions to the ecological crises that threaten Australia’s cities.’ However, the converse is equally true, namely that only cities that look after their environment can be truly just and fair to their citizens. The principles of permaculture, as formulated by Mollison (Mollison with Slay 1991, 532), stressed design elements and their complementary interaction within landscapes, reducing energy use and utilizing biological resources. More recently, Holmgren (2002) has revisited the concepts, theories and practices of permaculture and reformulated the principles as: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Observe and interact. Catch and store energy. Obtain a yield. Apply self-regulation and accept feedback. Use and value renewable resources and services. Produce no waste. Design from patterns to details. Integrate, do not segregate. Use small and slow solutions. Use and value diversity. Use edges and value the marginal. Creatively use and respond to change.

Holmgren (2002, 47–8) argues that permaculture offers the best hope of successful adjustment to the low-energy future that will follow the imminent peaking of global oil supplies, and that permaculture principles can guide us as we negotiate the ‘culture of energy descent’ that will be humanity’s main preoccupation over the next century. Cities as Solutions Moving cities towards sustainability will require substantial changes to many facets of society and decision making. Permaculture offers an integrated approach to how we make these changes and how we involve all levels of society in the process. The key players who decide and influence the directions in which our cities develop and change are local and State government planning and regulatory authorities, the development industry, and the planning and design professionals who work for these groups. The remainder of this chapter outlines policy applications of permaculture principles that these players could implement to make cities more environmentally

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sustainable and more socially equitable. These policies complement the widespread changes already occurring at a neighbourhood and community level and support individual actions towards sustainable cities. Observe and Interact Creating an optimal design or plan requires a degree of familiarity with the place that is being planned or designed. Each place has its own unique climate, landform, vegetation and history. Observation of these specific local features, and interaction with local people by planners and designers before they start to create a design, is important. Permaculture design works with nature and uses natural processes as much as possible. The ability to ‘read the landscape’ is a key skill for permaculture designers. Developing this skill requires that designers spend time out of doors, observing and interacting with nature. There is no better way to understand the requirements for handling water run-off, for example, than to stand on a site in the middle of a rainstorm. And there is no better way to find out whether the finished construction is successful in handling water run-off than to revisit it during another rainstorm. Local communities often have detailed knowledge of the history and geography of a site that can be invaluable for planners of buildings, developments and infrastructure projects. Too frequently, however, that knowledge is not sought by the planners, or is sought by social scientists, not planners, or is sought only at a late stage in the planning when the main reactions that people have are negative. Early, informal interaction with local people by planners would identify potential problems and help achieve mutually acceptable and sustainable solutions. Catch and Store Energy Catching winter sun for natural warming and cool summer breezes for natural cooling, while blocking out hot summer sun and cold winter wind, are the common sense features of so-called passive solar design. Unfortunately, in contemporary Australian housing developments, these are honoured in the breach more often than not. Solar hot water heating, the most efficient of all energy-saving technologies, is installed in only a small minority of Australian buildings. Also, almost all the rainwater that falls onto city roofs runs off into stormwater drains. The time has come to require passive solar design, solar hot water heating and rainwater collection, storage and use in all new houses and all houses undergoing major renovation (see Chapter 17). Planning authorities can also work with design professionals, the construction industry, ‘green’ plumbers networks, the hardware industry, environment centres and community gardens to facilitate the dissemination of these sustainable design methods and technologies as well as the advice and ‘know-how’ required to support their adoption and installation. Trees are very efficient at catching and storing solar energy in the form of both food and wood. Local authorities should broaden the focus of the tree planting that

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they have been doing in recent years with bush regeneration groups and individual landholders to include trees that can be harvested for fuel and food, as well for wildlife habitat and environmental improvement. Obtain a Yield The potential yield of food, fibre, fuel and fodder from Australian cities is enormous. They are mostly in the better-watered areas of the country and their low density means that there is plenty of open space. Backyard production of vegetables, fruit, nuts, eggs and honey has a long tradition in Australia and is currently going through a minor resurgence. Production of food on public land, through community gardens and street plantings of food trees, is a newer development gaining momentum. Future needs may also include urban production of timber for construction and firewood and even fodder for animals. Australian permaculturalist Rosemary Morrow, who has worked extensively in Vietnam, has compared the typical quarter acre block in the suburbs of Sydney with the typical Vietnamese small holding, also a quarter acre. The Vietnamese block contains fruit trees, vegetables, medicinal herbs, firewood, a pig and some chickens, a fishpond and a rainwater tank. This supplies most of their food needs and even produces a surplus to trade in the local market. Sydney suburbs could quite easily follow the Vietnamese example, Morrow (2005, 14–15) argues. Urban agriculture has a long tradition in many of the world’s large cities, from ‘allotments’ beside railway lines in Britain and Germany to the Chinese market gardens on creek flats in Australian cities before World War II. Shanghai grew most of the food for its many millions of inhabitants within the city boundaries until its recent rapid growth. Havana, the capital of Cuba, responded to the food crisis brought about by the cessation of Soviet support in 1989, and continuing US sanctions, by rapidly developing the capacity to produce much of its food within the city. Ten years after the crisis, average food consumption was almost back to what it was before the crisis (Cruz and Medina 2001, 4). Australian permaculturalists played a significant role in helping facilitate this transition. Current planning policies aim to increase urban density in order to support greater efficiency of services, such as public transport, but these policies can lead to reductions of open space in cities. The challenge for planning policy is to increase urban density in a moderate and environmentally and socially sustainable way that ensures the continued availability of both public and private open space for urban production and yield, without creating alienating, high-rise ghettos or increasing road space for private transport. Increased density should never be a planning goal in its own right. Increased public transport use, for example, may be achievable just as readily by improvements in efficiency and coordination as by increasing residential density (Self 2000). Community groups are developing new ways of obtaining a ‘yield’ or income through ‘social’ enterprises such as food cooperatives, farmers’ markets, plant nurseries, gardening services, cafés and coffee shops. These ‘third way’ – neither ‘public’ nor ‘private’ – enterprises often employ disadvantaged people and involve

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others on the margins of mainstream society in a socially inclusive approach. These small enterprises can meet local needs and employ local people in a way that larger public and private employers often cannot. Policy makers and planners could assist these social enterprises by developing new forms of land tenure and other forms of support for them. Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback As water and energy shortages become a fact of everyday life, planners, policy makers and authorities are setting targets and imposing restrictions on consumption. If these are imposed in a top-down, heavy-handed way, they risk alienating the people whose cooperation is required to achieve the targets. Permaculturalists and other environmentalists have been working with and teaching communities and individuals for many years how to monitor their own consumption and how to use resources less and more efficiently. The notion of ‘limits to growth’ is central to permaculture policy and is now entering mainstream debate and policy. Planners and policy makers could work with permaculturalists and environmentalists to provide feedback to the public and to involve them in deciding how to limit growth and reduce consumption. Feedback can come in many and varied ways. At CERES (2007) environment centre in Melbourne, sacred kingfishers were noticed to be arriving in spring a few years ago, after an absence of many years, providing feedback that efforts to revegetate the creek and bring back wildlife were working. This resulted in the ‘Return of the Sacred Kingfisher’ annual spring festival celebration. Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services We are still discovering, or rediscovering, sustainable ways of utilizing natural systems, such as plants and soil, to provide useful materials and to help us reuse our ‘wastes’. Earth and straw bales are renewable building materials that many permaculturalists have used to build their houses. However, the sustainable housing codes that have been developed to promote construction of houses with minimal environmental impact have, in the past, discriminated against the use of these renewable materials. This anomaly was rectified after some vigorous lobbying but it appears that the same thing is happening now in the area of grey-water reuse. Permaculturalists pioneered effective natural systems of grey-water purification and reuse, using reed beds, banana circles and mulch trenches. However, officially sanctioned grey-water reuse systems for sewered areas in Queensland now require surge tanks, valves for purging to the sewer, soil tests, reticulation 100 mm beneath the surface and payment of an annual licence fee (Queensland Government 2006). The regulations do not make any allowance for the role that plants can play in taking up the grey-water nor do they acknowledge the importance of rotating grey-water distribution so that soil organisms can rejuvenate and any accumulated salts be

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flushed out. Permaculturalists risk acting outside the law if they continue with their proven systems. The lessons from these episodes is that engineers and planners need to become more biologically literate, ‘health’ regulations need to reflect environmental health as well as human health and planning codes, and regulations that aim to regulate renewable systems should be formulated in consultation with the people who developed them in the first place. Produce No Waste It is a scandal that, in a country whose soils are infertile partly because they are very low in organic matter, a huge source of organic matter, in the form of urban green ‘waste’, is dumped in landfill (see Chapter 10). The green waste from urban kitchens and gardens should be composted and applied to our gardens and farmlands to improve fertility. Adding compost to our soils could have another benefit. Tim Flannery (2005, 32) has suggested that increasing the level of carbon in soil by incorporating organic matter from compost and green manure into our farmers’ fields would be one of the best, and quickest, ways to tackle the increase in greenhouse gases that is causing climate change. Some local councils are experimenting with kerb-side pick-up of green waste and large-scale composting of it, while others are encouraging residents to compost at home. Some community gardens compost green waste from local restaurants and lawn-mowing contractors. These scattered and patchy efforts need to be coordinated, expanded and replicated nationwide. Local governments, through their State and national associations, are well placed to facilitate such efforts, which could become at least partly self-supporting through sales to farmers. Reuse of building materials and retrofitting of older houses, office buildings and warehouses has become quite fashionable in certain quarters but, as with ‘green’ power, it often costs more to use the recycled product than it does to use the new, non-recycled alternative. Governments could help redress this imbalance by ensuring that the full costs are charged for new building materials, including environmental externalities and hidden subsidies such as the diesel excise rebate. Design from Patterns to Details The patterns of geography and climate in areas occupied by Australian cities are quite different but there is a boring sameness about the outer suburbs of all cities. The design details have not reflected the particular patterns of their local climate, landscape and vegetation. Early versions of sustainable housing codes, which focused mainly on winter warming, not summer cooling, had the inadvertent effect of making houses hotter in summer. To make matters worse, climate patterns are changing, with summer heat waves becoming hotter and more prolonged. So sales of air conditioners are soaring as residents seek relief from the sweltering conditions in their suburban hot boxes.

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Permaculture teaches the importance of assessing the flows of energy, including sun, wind, water, fire, frost, people and animals, across a site before designing structures or gardens and placing them on the site. Permaculture designs aim to harvest and use beneficial energy flows, such as cool summer breezes and winter sun, while blocking or deflecting harmful flows, such as cold winds or fire. Sustainable housing codes must require subdivision and housing designs to take account of local patterns of climate, including the projected changes in the climate, as well as patterns of landscape and vegetation. Creeks, wetlands, ridgelines and significant vegetation all need to be taken into account in land use planning. Areas of productive soil will be particularly important in ensuring food security for cities in an oil-depleted future and should be protected from housing development. There can be no ‘one size fits all’ approach to housing development and design in countries as geographically diverse as Australia. Integrate, Do Not Segregate In Australian cities, work is segregated from home life, people are segregated from each other inside their individual houses or apartments, the poor are segregated from the rich, the disabled from the able bodied, and the elderly from their younger family members. Mixed-use redevelopments incorporating residential, retail and commercial uses are beginning to break down this segregation but permaculture would integrate much further. Urban ecovillages, co-housing, housing cooperatives, social enterprises, community workshops and community gardens are just some of the initiatives being developed to integrate people, including the disabled, the disadvantaged and the elderly, into the larger society. Landuse zoning will need to change to allow for multiple uses for land and to reflect the smaller footprint of private land and the larger footprint of common or public land that such initiatives require. This principle also incorporates the maxim of Mollison (Mollison with Slay 1991, 8) that, in a sustainable, integrated system, ‘Each important function is supported by many elements’. For instance, to ensure secure water supply for cities, it would be best to use multiple water sources, including domestic rainwater tanks, stormwater retention basins and grey-water reuse, as well as implementing efficiency measures, such as flow reduction devices, dual-flush toilets and drip irrigation for gardens. For example, Bondi Junction, Sydney has a productive community garden in the midst of a sea of unit blocks and shops. Despite water restrictions, it is a green oasis thanks to two large tanks of rainwater harvested from the roof of the childcare centre next door. Likewise, with energy, ensuring a secure supply would require use of a variety of sources, including solar hot water systems, photovoltaic cells and wind turbines as well as energy-efficient design and appliances. To ensure food security, food would be grown on balconies, in backyards, in community gardens and city farms and in public parks and along streets, as well as in market gardens on urban creek flats and on the urban fringe.

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Use Small and Slow Solutions Large houses on small lots is the pattern of most new developments in our cities, with unsustainable consequences, such as increased stormwater run-off and little room for rainwater tanks, grey-water reuse, vegetable gardens or children’s play areas. The challenge for developers and architects wishing to create sustainable housing and limit urban sprawl is to design smaller houses that still provide the sense of space, comfort and privacy that buyers seek in larger houses. Today’s ‘fast’ society not only leaves many people behind but also deprives citizens of the richness and depth of experience of local culture, food and people. Contrast the social interaction and taste experience of buying food at a large supermarket with shopping at a local organic farmers’ market or the sense of belonging to a neighbourhood gained from walking rather than driving through it. Visionary design for our cities needs to plan for a future in which walking, bicycles, bus and rail will be the predominant modes of transport and where people will be able to live their lives more fully in their local neighbourhood, rather than needing to travel all over the city to go to work, school or shops. Diversity of Uses and Values The biodiversity of the remaining natural areas in and around our cities has been depleted by development, while at the same time the diversity of human cultures is being reduced by modernization and globalization. In an effort to re-create pristine biodiversity, many local governments and community groups are involved in efforts to regenerate bushland in cities by planting species that are native to the local area and by waging a ‘war on weeds’. They have been successful in bringing back plants, birds and animals that had vanished years before but, in many cases, have created new weedscapes. Permaculturalists, and many conservationists, are now recognizing that biodiversity is not a static reality that can be re-created but rather is a dynamic and evolving feature of sustainable natural systems (see Chapter 18). Total eradication of weed species is impossible and many indigenous species no longer thrive where soils and water flows have been irrevocably changed. Fruit trees, bush foods and timber trees can be planted instead, to use productively the increased nutrients and water flows created by soil disturbance and run-off. In regard to human diversity, the policy of multiculturalism has been successful in fostering acceptance and celebration of the diverse cultures within Australian society. But as David Holmgren (2002, 219) puts it: Multiculturalism itself contains the same paradox as the permacultural use of biological diversity, where the process of valuing and making use of nature’s diversity contributes to changing it. Acknowledgement of the value of differing traditions goes hand in hand with a promiscuous hybridisation to create new local cultures of place.

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Planners and local authorities thus need not only to be mindful of the different cultural groups within a local community but also responsive to ways that the community as a whole is evolving and creating its own local ‘culture of place’. Use Edges and Value the Marginal In biological systems, edges, or boundaries between two different landforms or plant communities, are often regions of greater diversity and productivity. Similarly, in cities, the boundaries between different neighbourhoods or between residential and commercial areas are often lively and creative places. The post-war separation of residential from commercial and industrial zones in Australian cities, plus the almost total exclusion of agricultural land, has created sterile, monocultural cityscapes. Permaculture planning would reverse this separation by creating mosaics of housing, industry, shops, offices, farmland and bush right through and around cities, which would facilitate interesting and productive interactions at the boundaries of different areas, not only in the inner city but also in the suburbs and on the urban fringe. The growing inequality in Australia has left many people, not least the Indigenous inhabitants, marginal to mainstream economic and social systems. NonIndigenous Australians can learn much from Aboriginal traditions about how to live in sustainable ways on this dry continent. Fire prevention and management is one area where Aboriginal knowledge has already been found to be useful. We would do well to learn also from them about the importance of a spiritual relationship to land, the social value of supportive, extended families and how to use and harvest the bushland areas, rivers and seas in sustainable ways. Urban planners and local authorities could work with Indigenous people to establish Indigenous cultural centres in our cities and to facilitate planting and harvesting of bush foods as well as the sustainable harvesting of the urban wildlife, such as possums and scrub turkeys, whose numbers have increased dramatically in some Australian cities in recent years. Creatively Use and Response to Change Rapid and continuous change is a feature of modern life, which is often seen as negative. However, change can be harnessed for positive ends, as summarized in the permaculture aphorism, ‘the problem is the solution’. Demographic changes create opportunities for planners and authorities to support more sustainable housing, land use and lifestyles. The ‘gentrification’ of older suburbs is an opportunity to encourage the retrofitting of existing houses for sustainability, while the ‘empty nest’ change currently affecting many of the ‘baby boomer’ generation living in large family homes opens up possibilities for their homes to be modified to allow them to take in boarders. Similarly, the advent of higher petrol prices creates an opportunity to develop alternatives to private, car-based transport, notably improved public transport, and to reduce the space allocated for roads and parking. The water crisis affecting many

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of our larger cities is an opportunity for Australians to revalue this most precious of resources and to change forever their assumption of unlimited supplies of potable water. The looming decline in the availability of oil that will follow ‘peak oil’ will also create a myriad of opportunities to redevelop strong and sustaining local communities and local economies. Therefore, permaculture principles can provide inspiration for planners, designers and regulators to rethink the way we develop and organize our cities. These principles have also been a stimulus to people at the grassroots in our communities to take actions towards sustainability. Community Action for Urban Sustainability Until recently, the impact of permaculture has been greatest in rural areas. It has not been so visible in major cities. However, the rapid blossoming of community gardens is changing this. There are over two hundred community gardens in Australia in 2006, with more starting each year. They grow food and demonstrate sustainable ways to design gardens, use water and energy, keep animals and regenerate bush land. They also provide training, build community networks and support disadvantaged people. Some community gardens operate enterprises such as nurseries, gardening services, market gardens, organic food markets, cafés, training courses in permaculture and organic horticulture and bicycle repair that allow people to make a modest income while meeting local needs. For instance, take a common scenario at Brisbane’s Northey Street City Farm. It’s a Saturday morning. Hundreds of people are milling through the organic farmers’ market buying local organic produce from the farmers who grow it. Under the mango trees, people are drinking coffee and chai, chatting and singing. Others are wandering through the nursery, seeking advice about what to plant in their home gardens. In another corner, fifteen people are listening eagerly to a demonstration of how they can reuse grey water on their gardens. Across the road, three volunteers are putting finishing touches to a large mosaic mandala. The gardens can help make the transition to sustainability interesting and fun, not difficult or threatening. By involving people socially, in gardening together, attending a workshop, building a cob oven, shopping at a farmers’ market or planning a community event, community gardens help bring people together to work cooperatively on the sustainability project. Such a project exists in Melbourne’s inner northern suburbs, where CERES city farmers weed and till the broad beans and garlic that grows on a fertile flat alongside Merri Creek. This creek flat has been cultivated continuously for over a century, first by Chinese market gardeners, then by a post-war immigrant family from Italy, and now by the CERES farmers. Permaculture: Motivating for Change Permaculture has motivated people to change behaviour because they have felt committed to a cause and have been involved personally and collectively in working towards achieving a worthwhile goal. They have felt connected to something that is

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bigger than themselves as individuals – a movement with a clear vision and practical strategies. Permaculture has also motivated governments to change. By getting out and doing it, implementing sustainable housing and land management solutions on the ground, permaculture has had, and continues to have, an influence on policy makers and regulators. Grey-water reuse, for example, has been practised by permaculturalists in urban as well as rural areas for many years, but only now, faced with water shortages, are urban authorities beginning to offer their imprimatur to this sensible strategy. Other examples of urban permaculture strategies being taken up by local authorities include composting toilets, swales or contour ditches for stormwater retention, farmers’ markets and street plantings of fruit and nut trees. For example, visitors who use toilets at community gardens located at Murdoch University (Perth, Western Australia), CERES (Melbourne, Victoria) and Morningside (Brisbane, Queensland) help to take the load off city sewers and contribute to the fertility of the gardens. These gardens have all been at the forefront of trials of biological or composting toilets with on-site reuse of treated effluent in urban situations. Permaculture is just one of many similar movements that work together to develop and promote sustainable living systems. Organic farming, community supported agriculture, slow food, ecovillages, co-housing, housing cooperatives, alternative finance, ethical investment, community recycling, community arts and sustainable transport are some of the other movements. Together they form a powerful network of ‘people power’ that is slowly but surely beginning to transform the way we live. Decentralization Lack of water is likely to limit the size and density of Australian cities. Arguably, many of Australia’s major cities are approaching, or possibly are already beyond, a size and density that can be sustained by the available water. Permaculture strategies for more decentralized human settlements, which harvest their own water and grow much of their own food, will be vital for ensuring the sustainability of Australian settlements in a future that is likely to be drier than now. Energy use could increase during the transition to a decentralized pattern of settlements, as ‘sea changers’, ‘tree changers’ and rural ‘new settlers’ use their private, often four wheel drive, vehicles to commute to and from cities and regional centres for work, family visits, shopping, education, health care and cultural experiences. However, permaculture inspired ecovillages, such as Crystal Waters near Maleny in Queensland, have sought to minimize the need for residents to travel by creating a critical mass sufficient to support basic service provision on site. Other permaculture inspired rural subdivisions in New South Wales, such as Jarlanbah in Nimbin and The Bend in Bega, have been sited on the edges of existing country towns so that residents can use the existing services and community activities provided in those towns. Australian cities and coastal regions grappling with issues of sustainable population numbers need decentralization policies. They should aim to limit the

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sprawl of small rural acreage holdings around our major cities and along coastal strips and to promote instead the rejuvenation of existing country towns and villages. Conclusion As an amalgam of science, philosophy, traditional agricultural and land management systems, along with practical design techniques, permaculture provides a holistic approach to reordering our living systems. Permaculture has much to offer Australian cities confronted by and grappling with dramatic environmental and social changes. References CERES (2007), Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies [website], , accessed 5 January 2007. Cruz, M. and Medina, R. (2001), Agriculture in the City: A Key to Sustainability in Havana, Cuba (Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers). Flannery T. (2005), The Weather Makers (Melbourne: Text Publishing). Gleeson, B. (2006), Australian Heartlands: Making Space for Hope in the Suburbs (Sydney: Allen and Unwin). Holmgren, D. (2002), Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability (Hepburn Springs: Holmgren Design Services). Mollison, B. with Slay, R. (1991), Introduction to Permaculture (Tasmania: Tagari). Morrow, R. (2005), ‘The Blossoming of Surburbia’, The Planet – The Journal of Permaculture International Limited 13, 14–15. Queensland Government (2006), Guidelines for Councils of Greywater for Residential Properties in Queensland Sewered Areas Queensland Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation [website], , accessed 15 September 2006. Self, P. (2000), ‘Is Effective Democratic Planning Possible?’ in Troy (ed). Troy, P. (ed.) (2000), Equity, Environment Efficiency – Ethics and Economics in Urban Australia ( Melbourne: Melbourne University Press).

Chapter 5

Policy Approaches Incorporating Life Cycle Assessment Tim Grant

Introduction In the development of ‘green’ or ‘sustainable’ design practice, a range of guides, checklists, advice and green mores develop as sustainable design folklore. ‘Folklore’, as used here, is not derogatory, simply describing how a knowledge base develops over time and passes between people in both formal and informal channels, in guides and policies and also in conversations and marketing. Such folklore is based on experience and analysis, what is known at any given time or for a significant period before any given time. What is important from a policy perspective is that this folklore is renewed as situations change and new knowledge and innovations occur. A culture of challenging and testing sustainable design folklore has developed so that responses to sustainability are fresh, unique and tailored to specific situations, rather than rigidly implementing a set of rules. One important tool in the evaluation of new approaches and the development of new folklore is life cycle assessment (LCA), a method of evaluating the environmental impacts of products and services across their whole life cycle. LCA focuses on how human activities in the economy affect the environment. It reaches beyond attributes of products and services, such as ‘natural’ or ‘renewable’, to specify and evaluate the net environmental damage or improvement to the environment of those products and services. This chapter outlines why LCA is important for developing sustainable housing and urban planning culture and practice. A brief history and an examination of current LCA applications in this area are provided. Trends in analytical techniques of LCA and results emerging from LCA in relation to sustainable housing and urban planning are discussed and recommendations made for embedding these approaches into the thinking of planners, designers and policy makers. What is Sustainable? In a book on steering sustainability, it is important to deliberate over the central question: What is sustainable? The first aspect of this question is philosophical, being how to balance social and equity goals with economic and environmental goals. However, at a more mundane level, having reached agreement on the broad

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principles of sustainability, there remain complex questions about which courses of action lead to sustainability, how far they go, and whether they are enough. Currently, most opinions about what is good for the environment are based on historical experiences of environmental issues and reactions to environmental pressures, collectively condensed into environmental folklore encapsulated in very general terms, such as ‘natural’, ‘degradable’ or ‘renewable’, or in acts such as the move to avoid the use of polyvinylchloride, the shift to smaller vehicles, and so on. The limitation of environmental folklore is that it generally develops in an ad hoc way. More importantly, it is often outdated, representing responses to historical concerns and pressures, even a generation out of date. Such folklore may not be based on a quantitative assessment of effectiveness and rarely takes into account wider environmental concerns. For example, the initial response to the problem of increasing plastic waste in the 1960s was to look for biodegradable plastics in an attempt to reduce litter and disposal problems (Bonifaz et al. 1996). Through one of the first LCAs undertaken in Europe, it became clear quickly that biodegradables were not a solution, due to the resources required to produce them and because biodegradable material increases gas emissions and leachate in landfills. Despite this, a folklore pertaining to plastics, the (non) issue of not degrading in landfill or in the environment persists, and biodegradables are still regularly sought as a solution. Another problem is that the complexity of the modern economy and its interaction with the environment, a more complex system than the economy, makes intuitive responses vastly inadequate. As a response to the failure of current systems of city design and agriculture, Chapter 3 (on the ecopolis) and Chapter 4 (on permaculture) describe efforts to make human activity and the economy emulate natural systems. Each approach addresses the limitations of the current systems. However, to determine the respective values of theses approaches both as alternatives to the current system and in terms of their superiority to other alternatives, it is necessary to dispassionately evaluate whether they deliver the net environmental benefits sought and, if so, at what cost to other environmental and sustainability priorities. Ultimately, we would also like to know how far these achievements take us towards sustainability. However, to suppose that we can quantify sustainability endpoints is overly ambitious given the complexities and dynamic natures of the economy and the environment. Applying Life Cycle Assessment LCA is a method for determining the efficacy of strategies, policies, actions and products to advance sustainability when compared with current practice or with alternative future options. LCA provides a framework for a systemic assessment of environmental impacts. LCA aims to calculate the extent to which human activities, such as product manufacture and use, involve exchanges with the environment, such as the use of resources or the release of pollutants (air emissions, radiation and so on). LCA relates these exchanges to environmental indicators, analysing scientific causes and effects. The types of impacts examined depend on the study and the

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practitioner, but should cover all the important impacts, and should be scientifically valid: there should be a clear cause-and-effect relationship between emissions and endpoint damage. This approach recognizes that any set of environmental indicators or concerns is socially constructed and is not a set of absolute or intrinsic environmental ‘rights’ of the biosphere. Examples are provided by different approaches to environmental protection. For instance, some seek to protect aspects of nature dating from specific time periods (in Australia, usually pre-settlement) while the permaculture movement (advocating a form of sustainable agriculture) considers the biosphere in terms of sustainable productivity. Urban environmental issues are often framed around shortterm and medium-term health concerns about air and water pollution. This chapter will show how, in order to renew environmental folklore and provide more rational and responsive decision-making in urban planning in future, LCA impact assessment, coupled with quantification of the scale and causes of such damage, is essential. How Life Cycle Assessment Works LCA seeks to measure the environmental impacts of human activities by breaking down those activities into constituent parts and measuring how each part contributes to environmental impacts. The scope of the environmental impacts taken into account is limited by the available science for characterizing the links between activities and environmental impacts and by the scope set by the LCA analyst and client, who may define environmental criteria of interest. Taking a broad definition of environment as ‘everything that surrounds an organisation’ (Standards Australia 2004), derived from the international standards on environmental management, the impact need not be limited to biophysical impacts but could include social, cultural and economic impacts. However, traditionally, LCAs have been limited to biophysical impacts. The approach to constructing a cohesive set of environmental impacts begins with identifying key areas of protection for humans. In other words, what do we as humans see as the most important things to maintain or enhance in the face of the pressure from modern industrial societies? The main failing in this approach is the lack of consistent positive frameworks for what humans wish to achieve. Areas of protection acknowledged internationally are: human health, ecosystem health, resources stocks and climate systems. Environmental effects that cause damage to such areas of protection are identified, and cause-and-effect chains between releases and materials used by productive systems and damage are established. An example of an LCA impact method is EcoIndicator 99 (Goedkoop and Spriensma 1999, 10), shown in Figure 5.1. It shows how the area of protection that we call ‘human health’ is affected partly by respiratory disease, which is in turn linked to changes in hydrocarbon concentrations from volatile organic carbon emissions. Other pathways include land use and its effect on habitat size, and consequent effects on vascular plants, which, in turn, affect biodiversity. In routine LCA practice, the impact methods are taken from existing models rather than being developed from first principles.

Figure 5.1

EcoIndicator 99 model

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Figure 5.2 shows how extractions from the environment and releases to the environment are accounted for at each stage of the life cycle: from raw material production, to material manufacture, to product manufacture, to packaging and use, on to disposal of the product (Standards Australia 1998). In LCA, something is deemed released to the environment when it leaves human control or management, such as before human transformation. Releases to the environment are not treated as problems until an impact on one of the areas of protection is identified. Although, in physical terms, all of these interactions occur within the environment, the movement of polluting substances within the economy is not counted as a problem. For example, while lead is a major pollutant in air and water, the use of lead in car batteries is not a problem to human health as long as the lead can be maintained and managed within that product. While the cause and effect between emissions or resource use and the areas of protection is difficult to quantify, a clear link is required before they are assessed within the LCA framework.

Figure 5.2

Interactions between the environment and the economy

While the framework for LCA is built from the top down – that is, identifying the areas of protection, looking for damaging effects to those areas, then looking at emissions which lead to those effects – in practice LCA works from the bottom up. Data on emission flows and resource use are collected from production systems investigated through the LCA. This is usually based on specific products or services which are assessed to determine the least damaging, or most beneficial, manner in

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which a service or product can be supplied. In this way, LCA is always assessed per unit or function (referred to as the ‘functional unit’). Standards Australia (1998) describes LCA as a four-stage process. This process begins by defining the goal and scope of the LCA, including an accurate definition of the service under study (the functional unit), the indicators to be used, and the specific aspects of the production system to be examined. The second stage involves measuring emissions and resources used in production systems to produce the functional unit, although this is usually collected from pre-existing environmental databases rather than gathered first-hand. The culmination of this second stage is the addition of all emissions and resource flows across the entire production system. The third stage of the LCA takes the inventory, which may consist of hundreds of individual emissions, and assigns to them indicators selected for use in the study. The fourth stage of the LCA is the interpretation phase, which examines significant issues highlighted by the LCA and tests the assumptions and data sources with checks such as sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. Systematic and Explicit In LCA, quantification and methodological developments in search of causes and effects do not build towards a single unified model of either the environment or sustainability. The choices made in the development of LCA indicator sets are just that: choices supported with information about current states of knowledge of how human activity affects human health and the environment. This is a vastly different approach from other environmental perspectives, such as government policy, which is often based largely on piecemeal responses to a series of single-issue crises that have occurred over the last fifty years or so. Issues such as waste avoidance and recycling are a response to landfill shortages, poor amenity around landfills, and pollution arising from landfill leachate. Energy resource policies have been a response to energy shortages since the 1970s. Climate change is simply the latest pressure, which draws our attention to responses, most embedded in the economy. Most responses to climate change affect a range of other environmental issues in both positive and negative ways. The purpose of the LCA framework is to look past the historical baggage and labels attributed to different products, services and approaches, and to evaluate, in a transparent and objective way, the positive and negative outcomes of alternative approaches to decision making about issues associated with production and consumption. Within this framework, attributes such as ‘natural’, ‘degradable’, ‘renewable’, ‘recyclable’, ‘reusable’, ‘phosphate free’, ‘chlorine free’ and so on are evaluated on their merits rather than simply placed in perspectives which rely on their historical significance. Both the utility provided by products and the damage to areas of protection for human beings are succinctly identified to allow maximum opportunity for alternative interpretations and approaches to emerge. For example, in the area of utility, the functionality of cars focuses on mobility, to allow consideration of alternative modes of transport, and then on accessibility and community services

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provided by mobility. Through such reasoning, the necessity for mobility might be reduced by bringing destinations closer together. Just as functionality can be deconstructed to reveal the underlying benefits derived from products and services, environmental impacts can be deconstructed to reveal underlying issues of concern. As part of a plastic bag study produced for the Australian government (ExcelPlas Australia et al. 2004), the impacts of litter from shopping bags were separated into aesthetic (visual impacts of litter, both natural and constructed) and marine animal impacts. Within this framework, slowly degrading materials were interpreted as hardly affecting the aesthetic impacts, as most litter in many locations was collected before it degraded. In the case of marine mammals, the density, not the degradability, of the material was shown to be the most important feature. Removing from the water stream material with a density of 1 or lower, which tends to remain suspended in waterways and oceans for weeks or months, was most significant because heavier materials sank within days of entering waterways. Integrating LCA into Decision Making and Planning There are numerous problems associated with LCA, not least of which are the time and expense that it takes to undertake LCA research and studies. It is neither practical nor desirable to use LCA, as currently designed, for all significant decision making in any sector from packaging through to housing and urban planning. The cases where LCA is justifiable within a single decision context are few and, despite the investment of significant resources, LCA may not always provide clear answers to specific questions. The value of LCA lies in the learning and understanding it provides and the new insights into how and why different materials, production and approaches affect environmental concerns. Using a consistent and considered analytical framework, LCA is creating new environmental folklore beyond single-issue concerns that essentially respond to the latest crisis. What is required to drive the development of this new environmental folklore is a solid research foundation of LCA and life cycle inventory with respect to existing and proposed approaches to housing and urban development. For instance, recent work on the ecological footprint of the Aurora green development in northern Melbourne (see Chapter 15) has highlighted significant potential benefits from installing solar hot water systems, improving the thermal performance of houses and, most importantly, reducing the average house size across a diverse mix of housing options (CfD at RMIT and Global Footprint Network (2006). The theoretical performance of an average Aurora dwelling compared with conventional dwellings is shown in Figure 5.3. The environmental indicator used in this study was a measure related to the ecological footprint that principally considers land use and greenhouse gas emissions (converted to a land use equivalent). The value of this approach was as a tool of communication. The ecological footprint is understandable and simple for housing designers and land developers to use. Many other initiatives either made little difference to the environmental loads of the house construction or were not well enough characterized to determine resulting benefits.

Ecologi cal footprint (Gha, per residen t per year)

1.600 House construction

1.400

House maintenan ce 1.200

Land occupied by house

1.000

Electricity (space heating and cooling ) Electricity (ligh ting)

0.800

Electricity (water heating) 0.600

Electricity (other household )

0.400

Natural gas (space heating)

0.200

Natural gas (water heating) Natural gas (other household )

0.000 Conventional 2-3 star energy rated houses

Figure 5.3

Conventional 5 star energy rated houses

LCA performance of Aurora homes

Aurora

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The number of organized material ratings and assessments being undertaken in Australia now means that the evolution of environmental folklore should be faster than before. Figure 5.4 proposes how LCA can function, through guides and case studies, to regenerate environmental folklore.

Figure 5.4

Regenerating environmental folklore – applying LCA and its derivatives

The data and lessons arising from LCA differ from what we have known previously. LCA data and interpretations are neither as stable nor as simplistic as a lot of previous environmental folklore. Subtlety is important in both interpretations and applications of environmental principles. This insight is not new, as existing environmental folklore also required subtle interpretation. However, subtlety is not possible without deeply understanding the rationale behind certain aspects of environmental folklore.

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Folklore without a clear understanding of the rationale and appropriate application of a principle or insight tends towards environmental dogma. A good example is provided through a discussion of the development of biofuels, which promised positive benefits for the environment. Biofuels, made from renewable feed stock, are almost entirely non-toxic and can be considered ‘natural’, depending on whether agriculture is defined as natural or not. Early LCA studies showed mixed results for different biofuels, with land use impacts such as fertilizer application and water use being significant for some crops. Also, processing impacts, particularly for ethanol fuels, is considerable, depending on the source of energy (Beer and Grant 2003). However, as the biofuels industry has developed and responded to these studies, and associated science and information has improved, results for biofuels have been shifting positively. Details of the system matter, and subtlety is important. The appropriate approach in this new era of multiple and complex environmental, social and economic objectives involves scepticism and dynamism with respect to information use, and continuous inquiry into what works for sustainable practices over time. Scepticism need not lead to indecision. It is important to act on the best available knowledge. However, policy makers as well as other decision makers need to be careful not to get locked into set positions and solutions so that flexibility is possible when refinement or changes in strategy are required at a later point. We need to be responsive and reflexive in the application of our environmental knowledge, as changing technology, social preferences and pressures will make tomorrow’s solution different from today’s and outdated by the day after tomorrow. Not only market-based players, such as manufacturers, product developers and consumers, but also advocates and policy makers need to be willing to challenge their assumptions and beliefs without relenting on a commitment to a more sustainable outcome. What LCA approaches provide are ways of considering both the breadth of environmental impacts, rather than just an immediate issue, and all the stages of the production use and disposal chain. LCA highlights systematic approaches and learning, not just a reductionist calculated ‘answer’. LCA suggests that solutions only have value when elucidated in terms of causes and potential solutions. Another significant aspect of applying LCA is the need to incorporate dynamic models which look ahead, not only at existing impacts and environmental performance but also at the potential performances of alternatives and the likelihood of sustainable practices continuing. The most striking example of this is in the petroleum sector where synthetic products generally perform well (high) in most environmental indicators, but are based on diminishing reserves of oil or ‘natural capital’ (Hawken et al. 1999). Much of the system’s efficiency results from the scale of production and the quality of the original feed stocks. Obviously competing processes based on lower quality, recycled or natural feed stocks generally have higher manufacturing impacts. Nevertheless, the potential for ongoing sustainable production of natural products over synthetic products is of great interest to making decisions relating to sustainability.

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Conclusion LCA is a central element for steering sustainability. It provides a compass in what is a multidimensional space for solutions, assessing product performance against a range of environmental impacts in different parts of the supply chain. It provides well-developed and tested methods to introduce sustainable practices into our urban environments. LCA advisers and researchers can assist policy makers through a suite of strategies, such as applying LCA methods to practical challenges, training and advising policy bureaucrats and technocrats, monitoring and evaluating the results of government LCA applications, and through independent research, including research on policy recommendations. References Beer, T. and Grant, T. (2003), Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions From Fuel Ethanol in Vehicles. National Clean Air Conference: Linking Air Pollution Science Policy and Management. (Newcastle, Australia: Clean Air Society). Bonifaz, O., Nikodem, H. and Klopper, W. (1996), ‘LCA – How It Came About – An Early Systems Analysis of Packaging for Liquids’, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 1:2, 62–5. CfD at RMIT and Global Footprint Network (2006), ‘Ecological Footprint Analysis of Aurora Residential Development’ [Unpublished report prepared by the RMIT Centre for Design and Global Footprint Network for the Victorian Environmental Protection Authority, VicUrban and Building Commission, Melbourne]. ExcelPlas Australia, CfD at RMIT, and Nolan-ITU (2004), The Impacts of Degradable Plastic Bags in Australia: Final Report to Department of the Environment and Heritage (Melbourne: Centre for Design at RMIT). Goedkoop, M. and Spriensma, R. (1999), The EcoIndicator 99: A Damage Oriented Method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (Amersfoort: PRé Consultants bv). Hawken, P., Lovins A. and Lovins, H. (1999), Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown and Co.). Standards Australia (1998), AS/NZS ISO 14040: 1998 Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework (Sydney: SAI Global Ltd). Standards Australia (2004), AS/NZS 14004: 2004 Environmental Management Systems – General Guidelines on Principles, Systems and Support Techniques (Sydney: SAI Global Ltd).

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Part II Collective Practices

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Chapter 6

Stationary Energy: A Critical Element of a Sustainable Urban Metabolism Alan Pears

Introduction This chapter focuses on the role of stationary (non-transport) energy supply and use in the urban context, and proposes some policy options to help shift it towards a less unsustainable path. Stationary energy is an important direct input, and an input to other inputs, to urban development and activity. Supply and use of stationary energy drives aspects of the dynamics of the urban system and contributes to positive and negative sustainability outcomes. Table 6.1, which is loosely based on the urban metabolism model (Yencken and Williamson 2000, 121), lists major roles energy plays in an urban context, providing a framework for this discussion. Table 6.1

Roles played by stationary energy in urban systems

Inputs

Dynamics

Outcomes/ Impacts

Direct energy inputs

Operating energy for buildings and urban infrastructure.

Gain or loss of amenity.

Operating energy for business, industrial and household activities (including recreation).

Need for treatment or recycling of pollutants and wastes.

Energy as an indirect input for: food (agriculture and processing); materials (mining and processing); and water (pumping, treatment and embodied energy in infrastructure).

Impacts of gaseous, liquid and solid wastes.

Energy use in urban areas can create tensions and dilemmas. For example, development at higher density potentially reduces energy use and energy costs of urban infrastructure, but may limit access to solar radiation, change the level of building embodied energy, and may create significant social and amenity issues. Also, distributed electricity generation, such as cogeneration (the production of heat and electricity on site, usually using natural gas), or solar cells may cut greenhouse gas emissions but impact negatively on local air quality and amenity in comparison to remote centralized power stations. Some methods of treating waste water for

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reuse, and even supplying drinking water, such as desalination, can have significant energy implications as well. To develop urban policies that promote a transition towards a sustainable energy future, we need to look at the direct and indirect ways that energy is used, the forms of energy used and how they are supplied, and find ways of responding to the tensions and dilemmas that emerge. Inputs, Dynamics, Outcomes and Impacts The following discussion of energy issues within the urban metabolism conceptual framework of inputs, dynamics and outcomes or impacts highlights the critical necessity for an integrated, societal approach to energy policies related to energy production, supply and use. Inputs Energy is a critical input to urban systems. In Australia, energy is mostly produced from fossil fuels mined or extracted and converted into useful forms, such as electricity and processed natural gas, at locations distant from cities. Electricity and natural gas dominate Australia’s urban stationary energy supply, although wood, liquid petroleum gas, various forms of petroleum, and even some coal, are also used. The provision of this energy has enormous environmental and locally significant social implications, such as pollution and land-use conflicts in Victoria’s Latrobe Valley. Non-transport energy use, mainly used in urban systems, was responsible for 49 per cent of Australia’s total 2003 greenhouse gas emissions (AGO 2005a), and grew by 37 per cent between 1990 and 2003 (AGO 2005b). Various options for sustainable energy supply have been proposed, including shifting to renewable energy, geosequestration (capturing and storing greenhouse gases from fossil fuel use), and even nuclear power. Energy efficiency improvement is a key aspect of any sustainable energy strategy because, whatever energy source is used, efficient usage reduces the capacity required and, hence, social and environmental costs. Each energy option creates challenges, for example: •

• • •

Ongoing use of fossil fuels contributes to climate change, while geosequestration, storing carbon dioxide from combustion underground, is in its early stages of development and is likely to require replacement of all existing power stations, at substantial cost. Development of wind farms in some parts of Victoria has provoked strong opposition from some sections of the community. Many Australians have long-standing concerns about the risks of nuclear power and uranium mining. Energy efficiency policies are often opposed by entrenched interest groups, such as some building industry organizations, and elements of the timber industry have strongly opposed introduction of more stringent building energy regulations (Pears 2006, 50–51).

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In principle, energy supply should not be considered in isolation from social and environmental issues. When it has, this has often led to inappropriate policies. For example, energy market reform in Australia has focused on supply-side strategies and narrow financial criteria, which has driven an increase in consumption and a larger share of coal-fired electricity. This has contributed to the rapid growth in stationary energy greenhouse gas emissions. Instead, the development of a comprehensive sustainable energy strategy needs to start at the point of consumption, examine the systems and services for which energy is an input, then analyse the range of energy resources available, to match needs and sources. When this approach is taken, consideration of energy efficiency and appropriate energy forms, such as heat or electricity, may lead to the selection of very different mixes of energy sources than has traditionally occurred (Saddler et al. 2004). Such issues are discussed further below. Food supply to urban areas involves significant stationary energy inputs, both directly and indirectly, for agricultural activity, to produce fertilizers and chemicals and for processing into final products. Agriculture, forestry and fishing consumed 94.5 PJ in 2003–04, 4 per cent of Australia’s total final stationary energy (ABARE 2006). Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock and soils further increase environmental impacts. The food processing industry uses even more energy than agriculture, 164 PJ in 2003–04, 7 per cent of Australia’s total final stationary energy (ABARE 2006). Energy use for mining and processing materials for urban buildings, infrastructure and business activity is another major sustainability issue. Table 6.2 shows annual consumption of select materials per Australian. This table highlights the significance of construction activity in terms of quantities of material used. The high-energy intensity of metals makes them worthy of close consideration. Australia’s metals industry uses over a quarter of all stationary energy. Although a significant proportion of local production is exported, we import large quantities of metals as finished products (70 per cent of new cars purchased in 2005 were imported). High energy use in metal production cannot be ignored simply because most is exported. Table 6.2

Australian consumption of select materials

Material Aluminium Steel Wood, woodchips Paper Coal (mostly as electricity) Plastics Construction materials Crops Meat Dairy Total Source: Newton et al. (2001, 40).

kg/person/year 34 478 233 168 2900 72 5226 467 82 242 9902

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Several analysts have highlighted the magnitude of energy used to mine, process and transport materials for buildings and urban infrastructure. Such energy costs are referred to as ‘embodied energy’. Crawford and Treloar (2005) have estimated that the energy embodied in an office building is 8 to 25.8 GJ/m2, depending on the boundaries of the calculation. The lower value reflects only energy directly involved in producing materials while the higher value includes upstream energy inputs via an input–output model. The higher value is equivalent to estimated greenhouse gas emissions from energy consumption related to operating an average office building for up to twelve years, in which case operating energy dominates the life cycle impact. As buildings become more efficient, embodied energy will become a more significant proportion of life cycle building energy use, unless the energy involved in production of materials is also reduced. Water supply involves energy use for pumping and treatment. ABARE (2006) estimates that Australia’s total energy use associated with water, sewage and drainage is 8.9 PJ per year, of which 84 per cent is electricity. This is equivalent to 104 kWh of electricity per person per year, almost 4 per cent of average household electricity usage per person, and 70 MJ of other fuels (equivalent to about two litres of petrol) per person per year. In hilly urban areas, energy used in pumping water can exceed 2 kWh/kL. As we move towards strategies such as water recycling, desalination (which consumes 3 to 5 kWh/kL of water), or sourcing from distant locations, the energy cost of water is likely to become more significant. However, there is potential to offset some energy use by generating electricity from water as it flows downhill from high altitude storages to users. Indeed, some water suppliers are already installing mini and micro hydroelectric systems at dam outlets and in pipelines instead of pressure reduction valves. Dynamics Over 85 per cent of Australians live in cities, where most economic activity occurs. A high proportion of building and infrastructure energy use, building and infrastructure embodied energy, and household, business and industrial activity occurs in urban areas. The mainly urban commercial sector – office, retail, hotel, education and other services – uses 10 per cent of stationary energy and 22 per cent of all electricity while households, mainly in urban areas, use 18 per cent of all stationary energy and 28 per cent of all electricity (ABARE 2006). Most remaining stationary energy is used by industry, which provides inputs to urban areas as well as exports. While recreation may occur outside urban areas, most participants are from urban areas. There is ongoing energy use associated with infrastructure, such as street and public lighting, energy losses from electricity and gas supply networks, local distribution of water and pumping of sewage. Around 0.5 per cent of all Australian electricity is used for public lighting (ESAA 2005). Despite the major environmental impacts of urban energy use, energy is often a small component of total costs. In a typical household, non-transport energy accounts for around 2–3 per cent of expenditure on goods and services (ABS 2005). For the non-transport services sector, it is less than 1 per cent and for most industry less than 3 per cent (ABS 2002). Even if the full environmental and social costs

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were incorporated into energy prices, energy would still be relatively cheap. RCG/ Hagler Bailly and SRC Australia (1993) have shown that the greenhouse impact was the major environmental cost of Victorian electricity and that the inclusion of all environmental costs would increase the average retail electricity price by only around a third. The total cost of delivery of energy services includes costs of appliances, equipment or buildings that convert energy into useful services. Australian households spend more on buying energy-consuming appliances than on direct energy inputs (ABS 2000). Expenditure on buying and renovating houses dwarfs expenditure on energy. Most purchases of appliances and houses are made with little regard for energy efficiency. Indeed, measures such as appliance energy labelling, minimum energy performance standards and building energy codes are usually justified by the argument that, without them, buyers would fail to capture cost-effective energy savings due to market failures and imperfections. This means policies relying on market mechanisms that focus only on energy pricing do not necessarily deliver optimal policy outcomes. Incorporating environmental, social and economic costs into the price of energy would not make it sufficiently expensive to significantly change behaviour. Many decisions by manufacturers, retailers, installers and purchasers that drive energy consumption, involving purchase of appliances and design of buildings, are not made with a view to future energy consequences. In any case, most governments are reluctant to implement policies that increase energy prices, because of concerns about impacts on business and rural households. So policies to shift energy use towards sustainability must target a range of players – appliance and building designers, manufacturers, developers, builders, retailers, trades, purchasers and energy users – in ways that are likely to influence their behaviour in relation to energy. They need to involve measures such as incentives for sale and purchase of energy efficient appliances, equipment and buildings, as well as regulation. People congregate in urban areas to conduct business, industrial and household activities, thereby shaping urban economic and social outcomes. Policy makers often believe, erroneously, that ongoing economic and social development depends on increased use of energy and available supplies of cheap energy. Energy is just one of a number of critical inputs. The types of activities conducted and the efficiency of practices influence the level of energy use for a given level of outcomes. For example, an efficient services-oriented economy is likely to use much less energy than a comparable level of economic activity based on the processing of resources and manufacture of commodities. Smil (2003) points to a wide variation in levels of economic activity of countries with similar energy intensities. In 2003, Victorian household, small business and large business electricity prices were higher than in New South Wales by 37 per cent, 37 per cent and 5 per cent respectively (ESAA 2004). However, the Victorian economy performed well. Such data challenge the undue significance placed on low energy prices for business success. At the same time, it can be argued that total energy cost, not energy price, is likely to influence behaviour. Improving energy efficiency can reduce total energy cost or offset the impact of using more expensive energy sources.

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Recreation is an important aspect of amenity in urban areas. The level of energy use required for different options varies widely. Sitting in a park reading a book, or sailing in a nearby lake use much less energy than flying interstate for a skiing trip, driving a speedboat or driving to a rarely occupied holiday home. While much of this energy is for transport, holiday homes and tourism facilities use substantial amounts of energy and often contribute disproportionately to expensive seasonal peaks in energy demand. For instance, many unoccupied holiday homes leave fridges, hot water services and equipment on standby. Outcomes Pollution and wastes from burning fuels and other activities that use energy have become major urban issues. Emissions from transport fuel combustion and stationary energy fuels produce the bulk of urban air pollution. In Melbourne, in the mid1990s, non-transport fuel was responsible for almost 40 per cent of sulphur dioxide and volatile organic compounds (EPA 1998). Urban electricity use contributed to pollution in the Latrobe Valley, where the bulk of Victoria’s electricity is generated from coal. There is potential for higher urban energy use from processing water and materials for reuse and for increased generation of energy from what have traditionally been seen as wastes. At the same time, the emerging role of energy derived from wastes in the waste management hierarchy (see Chapter 10) will be increasingly debated. For instance, are there circumstances under which it is preferable to produce energy from waste paper instead of recycling it or using it for mulch? Will construction of a waste-to-energy plant encourage more wasteful behaviour and undermine recycling programs? Such questions highlight the holistic context within which urban energy supply and use must be considered and cluster around the key question of what paths are appropriate for achieving sustainable futures. Policy Options to Support Sustainability There is no single path towards sustainability. Technological and social developments mean that new options constantly arise. Therefore policies must be flexible and facilitate innovation if they are to assist in progress towards sustainability. Where private agents are expected to act, their ability to capture benefits that they value, and to manage risk (especially in the period before the benefits outweigh the costs), will strongly influence their inclination to act. Given that energy use is the outcome of lifestyle and economic development choices, our energy future is sensitive to many factors. For example, the increase in average floor area of new homes in the 1990s drove a significant increase in home heating and cooling energy use, as well as higher material consumption. The shift towards large-screen plasma television sets and low-voltage halogen lights has also increased energy consumption. However, dramatic changes are improving domestic energy efficiency and use of renewable energy. Today’s refrigerators use a third as much electricity as those of the mid-1980s. Features such as insulation make

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it possible to build homes that need little heating or cooling, in most Australian climates. Foreseeable technologies, such as light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, solar glazing that generates electricity and organic LED television sets, offer potential for very large reductions in energy demand, even while the quality and scale of services is enhanced. On the energy supply side, technology is shifting rapidly towards greater diversity and distribution of energy conversion technologies. Cogeneration systems, renewable energy sources and fuel cells are increasingly feasible substitutes for traditional centralized electricity generation. More businesses and houses can access natural gas from extensions of gas pipelines. Energy storage technologies are improving, thus enhancing flexibility of energy systems. There are some fundamental trends shaping future paths and creating policy issues to be addressed, including increasingly diverse mixes of supply and demand side technologies as energy, water, communications and other aspects of our lives are affected by miniaturization, modular construction, dematerialization, connectivity, multidimensional communication, utilization of diffuse energy sources, improving efficiency of use and recovery/reuse/recycling. For example, households and businesses increasingly will: collect and store solar energy and rainwater; use high efficiency technologies for more services from less energy, water and materials; and process water and materials for reuse. The next section explores some emerging policy issues associated with these new trends in supply-and-demand factors. Support for Diversified Solutions As we develop a more diverse range of technological and social energy service options that may be applied anywhere between the point of delivery of a service and the traditional centralized sources of supply, we must ensure fair and reasonable treatment for end users and their representatives as they interact with established infrastructure and service providers. For example, surveys have shown that many households installing grid-connected solar cells have had great difficulty gaining what they consider to be fair treatment from their electricity suppliers (Thornton and Washusen 2005). More widespread problems for cogeneration and demandside measures have also been identified (CoAG 2002). Similar issues exist in telecommunications. Market regulation will need to be modified to send signals to support positive behaviour and control unfair actions. National energy-market reform objectives specifically commit to ‘stimulate sustained energy efficiency improvements’ and ‘encourage the development of less carbon-intensive sources and technologies’ (CoAG 2002, 64). National policy also aims to address any structural, legislative or regulatory barriers to cogeneration, renewable energy and energy efficiency consistent with efficient operation of the market (Commonwealth of Australia 1998). Regulators have failed to ensure this. Indeed, Victoria’s Essential Services Commission (ESC 2006) has a key objective of maintaining the viability of the industries it regulates, which seems incompatible with the fair treatment of emerging industries that compete with established electricity and gas industries.

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There are examples of attempts to use market structures to promote sustainable energy, based on recognition of the social benefits of such a shift. The UK Office of Gas and Electricity Markets is required by legislation to account for the environmental impacts of its decisions and to consider ‘how best it can contribute to sustainable development’ (Ofgem 2005). The New South Wales Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal has mechanisms to allow energy distributors to ‘pass through’ recovery of lost revenue from energy efficiency and distributed generation. The energy market policy initiatives required include clear targets and key performance indicators for achieving fair treatment of sustainable energy options in energy markets, with clear penalties and contingency responses if they are not met. In the short term, compensating incentives for options adversely affected by market distortions must be introduced, along with formal demand-side incentive mechanisms, such as the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement requirement for electricity retailers (Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme 2007). Technical protocols are needed for interaction of multiply dispersed systems and mechanisms for taking advantage of the benefits such systems offer. Distributed water collection or electricity generation and storage systems might interact with centralized supply systems to provide mutual benefits by cutting pressure on infrastructure at critical times, while storing energy or water at other times. The Australian Greenhouse Office protocol for the control of appliances demonstrates how government can play an integrating role. ‘As of right’ grid connections and guaranteed fair pricing agreements are critical, along with stable incentive frameworks that do not stop and start. German households that install photovoltaic electricity systems are guaranteed a minimum price for power they sell to the grid (Hunnekes 2004). Each year this guaranteed minimum is reduced by 5 per cent for new installations, which guarantees returns without entrenching the subsidy permanently and pressures the photovoltaic industry to reduce costs in a sustained manner. The potential for large numbers of small energy generators and water treatment systems to operate might require management of risks, such as electrocution, falling off roofs and disease from poor quality water. The development of low-cost monitoring, feedback and safety systems, along with reasonable health and safety standards will be critical to substitute for simple conservative standards and bans. Capturing and Sharing Benefits Equitably Businesses and individuals can sometimes capture unfair benefits from their activities or shift costs and responsibilities unreasonably onto others as the balance of responsibilities shifts with changes in technology or market frameworks. The Productivity Commission (2004) has noted that some builders and developers have used performance-based building code provisions to shift costs from the building phase to the operating phase, potentially disadvantaging buyers and occupants. Likewise, it is widely accepted that energy prices will be distorted against sustainable options until a price based on the cost of limiting climate change within safe boundaries is placed on carbon emissions. Policy measures, such as demanding disclosure of

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performance at time of sale or lease, requirements to demonstrate performance claims, such as the Australian Building Greenhouse Rating scheme commitment agreement for new buildings (ABGR 2007), and monitoring and research to evaluate ongoing performance, can assist. At the same time, we must create mechanisms so that those who generate benefits for others can capture a share of such benefits. Estimation of life cycle impacts and benefits for the whole of society can provide a basis for determining reasonable incentives for individuals to adopt measures with societal benefits. For example, a developer could be required to pay a charge equivalent to twenty-five years of greenhouse gas emissions from a new building. This requirement would create an incentive to reduce life cycle emissions because absorbing the charge into the price of the developer’s building would make it less competitive than lowemission buildings designed using cost-effective strategies. Similar up-front charges could be linked to appliances, equipment and vehicles. Positive incentives could be based on the same approach, paid up-front and linked to life cycle greenhouse benefits. Incentives or fees could apply to water use and material content of products to encourage dematerialization, reuse and recycling. ‘Intelligent’ baselines can be designed to shift with sales-weighted average performance so that ‘free riding’ is minimized yet incentives for excellence are maintained. Managing Trade-offs Environmental and social impacts and trade-offs associated with distributed energy, water and materials management systems must aim to be effective, technically and socially. Air and noise pollution from distributed energy generation systems are obvious challenges. However, the logistics of managing materials responsibly on small building sites and heritage issues associated with urban consolidation and installation of features such as solar hot water services are also challenges. If utilization of urban biomass for energy increases, effective low-pollution technologies will be increasingly critical. The late-1980s Brunswick–Richmond Powerline Review, which responded to community concerns by examining the proposing agency as well as the proposed options to establish high voltage powerlines through Melbourne’s inner suburbs, and the community consciousness raising movement, Watermark Australia, provide models of community engagement and empowerment to develop improved solutions with multiple benefits and broad consensus. The energy sector has been seriously deficient in such processes. It is also important to develop improved decisionmaking tools to facilitate more sophisticated choices. For example, the FirstRate house energy rating software allows the designer to select a preferred mix of energy efficiency measures to achieve a required five-star outcome, so that individual circumstances, such as desire for a view or problems with lack of solar access, can be addressed (Reardon 2005, Section 1.10). We need similar tools to guide compliance with density guidelines, protect neighbours’ solar access and guide other complex decision making processes.

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Establishing More Sustainable Values and Practices We must challenge our assumptions in practices that have implications for energy consumption. Do we really need open refrigerated display cabinets in supermarkets and extremely bright artificial lighting in retail stores? Is it appropriate to waste energy heating outdoor dining facilities on footpaths? How bright does street lighting really need to be, given that trees often block out much of the light anyway? How much lighting is needed in the middle of the night? Open community processes, education and formal research are needed to confront these issues, accept or change community attitudes and drive change where appropriate. Fostering Innovation Achieving practical transitions to sustainability will require us to foster innovation and explore the diversity of possible paths forward while capturing economies of scale and managing the risks of ‘stranded assets’ (loss of an investment’s value). A theoretical example of a stranded asset is an expensive coal-fired power station that cannot be used because it exceeds greenhouse emission targets. We should be wary of investing in large, long-lived, specialized solutions at a time of rapid change and uncertainty. While economic efficiencies are important, we should remember that short-term economic benefits can mean long-term disadvantages. Often sustainable energy solutions are criticized for being expensive and uneconomic. However, the extra cost of constructing a sustainable home is comparable with installing a quality kitchen and less than one year’s depreciation on some car models often seen parked in house driveways. The economic risks associated with making mistakes in the sustainable energy field are small compared, say, with the depreciation cost of cars, expenditure on alcohol and gambling, as long as mistakes do not lead to energy shortages or blackouts. Minimizing the risks of change involves identifying niche opportunities where emerging technologies and services can develop profitably or at least at cost. For example, public advertisers could be required to use solar cells at a cost that is trivial compared with advertising revenue, providing a niche market for developing our solar-cell industry. Future-Proofing Infrastructure and Equipment Urban infrastructure and equipment is durable, and inflexibility associated with design may prevent or delay the adoption of sustainable technologies. For example, the cost of installing ‘third pipe’ (treated effluent) water networks in new subdivisions is low with common trenching. But retrofitting this option is extremely expensive. Similarly, installing wall insulation during the construction of new buildings is much cheaper and more practical than retrofitting it. It could be argued that installing hydrogen-compatible gas pipes in new developments in anticipation of a shift towards hydrogen might be a useful future-proofing strategy. However, inclusion of

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such features might involve costs that a private or corporate infrastructure provider would refuse to carry or cannot pass on, thus prompting regulation or incentives. In the future we will need to redesign energy supply systems to more appropriately suit demand for specific services. As an example, maintaining reasonable comfort in hot weather is important to many people and potentially a matter of life or death for certain young, old or ill people. Yet those using air-conditioning are often portrayed as wimps and blamed for blackouts and the higher costs required for occasionally used energy supply infrastructure. We can provide comfort without such costs. A very well-insulated and shaded bedroom can be cooled by a highly efficient airconditioner using no more energy than a ceiling fan. On-site photovoltaic panels could use the bountiful solar energy available at times when most cooling is required without overloading transmission and distribution networks. It is not an intrinsic problem; perceiving cooling as a ‘problem’ reflects current service provision through centralized electricity supply systems dominated by capital-intensive inflexible coalfired power stations. Limits of ‘Renewable’ Energy We need to consider resource limits and other constraints and opportunities associated with renewable energy sources. Because renewable energy sources are dispersed, variable and diffuse, the quantities available for some purposes may be limited. It is critical that aggressive energy efficiency is pursued in parallel with renewables. Cutting the quantity of energy required for services will reduce the cost of sustainable provision to below the total costs of today’s energy systems. We need to establish infrastructure to capture renewable energy sources that are wasted currently. For example, urban biomass (grass clippings, tree prunings and waste food) already provides a substantial potential energy resource which active management could substantially increase. Conclusion Change happens in ways that are often unexpected, particularly by existing industries and policy makers, who generally apply ‘incremental’ approaches. Gas street lighting provides an interesting historical example of the tensions that exist as new energy technologies emerge. In Melbourne, in the late 1890s, gas street lighting was losing its market share to electric lighting. While the innovation of gas mantle lamps meant more light from less gas, so that gas might again compete with electricity, the gas industry was unenthusiastic about a new technology that would reduce gas sales in the short term, even though it meant the industry might have a more viable future. Therefore it was not the gas industry but retailers, McEwans and the Australian Incandescent Light Company, that initially imported the mantles (Proudley 1987, 103). We face similar problems today as the gas and electricity industries struggle to respond to opportunities of energy efficiency and renewable energy. For example, the regulated financial return to gas network owners in Victoria is linked to the gas sales

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per kilometre of pipeline. Therefore the five-star energy regulations now mandated in most climatic zones in Australia for new single dwellings will adversely affect revenue by cutting demand for gas heating (MMA 2004), so it was not surprising that the gas industry actively opposed introducing the five-star regulations. Of course, revision of the regulatory framework could resolve this conflict, but this has not occurred. A key factor underpinning the current policy challenge is the need to manage a period of transition and uncertainty as new solutions emerge and are often less than perfect, or impact on groups previously unaffected, while challenging existing solutions. Throughout this chapter many policy options and issues have been highlighted. The key to success will be use of a wide variety of policy tools that encourage creative responses and protect emerging solutions from the market power of entrenched interests. References ABGR (2007), Australian Building Greenhouse Rating [website], , accessed 15 January 2007. ABARE (2006), Australian Energy Consumption and Production 1974–75 to 2004–05 Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics [website], Table F1: Australian Energy Consumption, By Industry and Fuel Type – Energy Units [webpage], , accessed 15 June 2006. ABS (2000), Household Expenditure Survey 1998–99: Detailed Expenditure Items [Cat. No. 6535.0] (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics). ABS (2002), Business Operations and Industry Performance Australia 2000–01 [Cat. No. 8140.0] (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics). ABS (2005), Household Expenditure Survey 2003–04 Summary of Results Australia [Cat. No. 6530.0] (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics). AGO (2005a), Tracking to the Kyoto Target 2005 (Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office). AGO (2005b), Australia’s Fourth National Communication on Climate Change (Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office). Commonwealth of Australia (1998), National Greenhouse Strategy (Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office). CoAG (2002), Towards a Truly National and Efficient Energy Market Energy Market Review Final Report (Canberra: Council of Australian Governments/ Commonwealth of Australia). Crawford, R. and Treloar, G. (2005), ‘An Assessment of the Energy and Water Embodied in Commercial Building Construction’, [paper] Fourth Australian LCA Conference, February, Sydney [website], , accessed 9 January 2007. EPA (1998), Air Emissions Inventory Port Phillip Region (Melbourne: Environment Protection Authority).

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ESAA (2004), Summary of Statistics 2002–03 Energy Supply Association of Australia [website], , accessed 3 July 2004. ESAA (2005), Electricity Gas Australia 2005 (Sydney: Energy Supply Association of Australia). ESC (2006), Energy: Our Role Essential Services Commission [website], , accessed 6 December 2006. Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (2007), [website], , accessed 10 January 2007. Hunnekes, C. (2004), ‘Germany: photovoltaic technology status and prospects’, International Energy Agency [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. MMA (2004), Economic Analysis of Impact of BCA and Plumbing Regulations on Gas Supply to New Estates [Report to Department of Infrastructure and the Sustainable Energy Authority] (South Melbourne: McLennan Magasanik Associates). Newton, P., Baum, S., Bhatia, K., Brown, S., Cameron, A., Foran, B., Grant, T., Mak, S., Memmott, P., Mitchell, V., Neate, K., Pears, A., Smith, N., Stimson, R., Tucker, S. and Yencken, D. (2001), Human Settlements, Australia. State of the Environment Report 2001 [Theme Report] (Canberra: CSIRO Publishing for Department of the Environment and Heritage), available at the CSIRO Publishing [website], . Ofgem (2005), ‘Environmental Action Plan Annual Review 2004/5’. Archived Publications [webpage], Ofgem [website], , accessed 30 January 2006. Pears, A. (2006), ‘The National Picture’, ReNew: Technology for a Sustainable Future 95, 50–51. Productivity Commission (2004), Reform of Building Regulation Research Report (Melbourne: Productivity Commission). Proudley, R. (1987), Circle of Influence: A History of the Gas Industry in Victoria (North Melbourne: Hargreen Publishing). Reardon, C. (ed.) (2005), Your Home Technical Manual, 3rd Edition. (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office). RCG/Hagler Bailly and SRC Australia (1993), Externalities Policy Development Project: Energy Sector – Selected Externality Values (East Melbourne: Department of Energy and Minerals). Saddler, H., Diesendorf, M. and Denniss, R. (2004), A Clean Energy Future for Australia (Sydney: Clean Energy Future Group and World Wildlife Fund). Smil, V. (2003), Energy at the Crossroads (Massachusetts: MIT Press). Thornton, K. and Washusen, J. (2005), Impediments to Grid Connection of Solar Photovoltaic: the Consumer Experience, Alternative Technology Association [website], , accessed 9 January 2007. Yencken, D. and Williamson, D. (2000), Resetting the Compass: Australia’s Journey Towards Sustainability (Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing).

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Chapter 7

Sustainable Transport in Urban Neighbourhoods: Policy Approaches, User Responses Jan Scheurer

Introduction When viewed from a user perspective, reducing car travel in contemporary cities poses a specific challenge of coordination between demand and supply-based approaches in housing policy and urban planning. Experience suggests that buildings designed with resource-saving technologies deliver comparative benefits regardless of their inhabitants’ lifestyle choices (Gestring et al. 1997; Jensen 1994). Similarly, programs to build grassroots awareness and behavioural change often achieve improvements in sustainability performance independent of building or neighbourhood design and infrastructure. However, coordinating these approaches is highly desirable due to the synergies it can engender. With regard to sustainable transport behaviour, it can be described as imperative (Scheurer 2001). Attempting to reduce car dependence, car use or car ownership immediately demonstrates the collective nature of transport networks. There is a frustrating paradox here: infrastructure for non-motorized modes and public transport services cannot improve sustainability performance unless significant numbers of transport users choose them. Conversely, an individual’s best intentions of reducing their car use remains thwarted where infrastructure, services and urban form fail to offer acceptable alternatives. This chapter argues that a key driver for progress in urban transport sustainability is innovative and experimental stakeholder relationships at various institutional and informal levels. The determinants of transport behaviour are examined from a user perspective, before highlighting the physical and social incentives required to promote non-car modes in local areas. In conclusion, some practical approaches to implement these insights on the ground are discussed. Transport energy consumption and environmental impacts can be influenced by many factors beyond those raised in this chapter. Alternative transport fuels can increase or decrease environmental impacts, depending on their sources. Improving vehicle fuel efficiency is a critical means of reducing impacts per vehicle kilometre, while ongoing improvements in engine technology, linked to tighter fuel quality standards, are cutting some forms of pollution. However, such measures do not necessarily contribute to reductions in the overall amount of travel. In some cases

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they may even encourage more travel as the cost of transport decreases. Increasing capabilities of telecommunications and computers mean that many tasks that traditionally required travel can be conducted without travelling or by using less transport, though it is debateable whether these opportunities practically translate into lifestyles and logistic chains of reduced travel. Neighbourhoods and Travel Patterns Until the 1990s, transport and mobility were rarely included in toolboxes for instigating sustainable urban development in neighbourhoods, even though the extent and character of travel behaviour are quite clearly connected to the internal layout, functional diversity and interactivity of a locale. Rudlin and Falk (1999) note that it is possible to design an ecological neighbourhood featuring a host of resourcesaving technologies and behavioural incentives in locales largely disconnected from the existing settlement context. This neighbourhood will be totally car-dependent whenever its members need to travel outside of it, offsetting many of the resource savings achieved within the community. Conversely, a highly accessible inner urban neighbourhood with inherently low car use may show better overall energy performance, even if the buildings are not designed to high standards of resource efficiency and residents are not resource conscious. Therefore, there is an emerging trend to pay greater attention to the links between different aspects of transport infrastructure and mobility behaviour, in a quest to further the potential of reform towards more sustainable cities and neighbourhoods. Simultaneously, there is a more differentiated understanding of the concept of mobility and its relation to the various dimensions of urban space and the activities of transport users now. Jahn and Wehling (1999, 130) distinguish between: •

•

•

the physical-geographical space (räumliche Mobilität), where mobility is determined by the availability and quality of technology and infrastructure, and therefore the ability to traverse physical distance efficiently and rapidly; the socio-physical space (sozial-räumliche Mobilität), where mobility is determined by the cohesion and multiplicity of urban and local communities, economies and environments, and thus the ability to satisfy everyday needs and attend social activities outside the home conveniently and through minimum investment of time and money; and the socio-cultural space (sozio-kulturelle Mobilität), where mobility is determined by aspirations and lifestyle preferences, and thus by the ability to participate in activities and expressions that are indicative of such choices and their associated social milieu.

A relatively widely discussed approach to explain the complex effects of lifestyles on mobility patterns concerns the conundrum between residential location, travel intensity and preferred travel modes. Different precincts of the city have specific characteristics that make them more or less attractive to groups aspiring to different lifestyles. Often these characteristics are connected to parameters of functionality, proximity and density.

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Chandra (2005) and Newman and Kenworthy (1999) compiled a range of findings consistently showing that total distance travelled and the modal share of trips in cars increase with distance between place of residence and city centres. The most plausible explanation is that inner urban areas generally offer more opportunities within walking and cycling range and better public transport services, but pose constraints to unhindered car use (such as road congestion and limited, costly parking), while this situation is the opposite in outer suburbs. However, in reality numerous other variables exist. Two Norwegian studies (Hjorthol 1998; Næss et al. 1995) confirm the tendency for car use to grow with distance of residence from a city centre, while revealing that public transit use and non-motorized travel do not simply reverse this pattern. The most prolific public transport users were residents of middle suburban areas with adequate public transport service and infrastructure (usually post-war settlers, not functionally integrated). In densely built-up inner areas and small towns on the urban fringe, non-motorized travel was more prevalent, and public transport use showed less correlation with the quality of service. As an explanation, it is suggested that inner urban residents enjoy better conditions for non-motorized mobility and thus have a choice of transport modes for many trips, while suburban residents effectively depend on motorized modes for most travel needs. Thus, the characteristics of the residential neighbourhood as such – accessibility of services, internal density, interactivity and integration of public transport – play a significant role. However, Røe (1999) found that there was a much higher potential for nonmotorized modes and public transit to substitute for each other where conditions were conducive than for either separately to reduce typical car use for the location. Moreover, an even jobs–housing balance in the spirit of urban decentralization appears offset by cross-commuting between suburbs and districts in environments of high access and low cost of motorized mobility. ‘People do not choose where to live mainly because of the distance to work’ (Næss et al. 1995, 350; see Sager 2005 too). Gwiasda (1999), in a study on travel patterns in several precincts of Cologne, Germany, concluded that potential travel demand savings vary considerably between purposes of trips. The location of retail facilities near dwellings appears to encourage short shopping trips across all income groups. Residents in every study area allocated similar travel time budgets to shopping trips. Residents with shops nearby were far more likely to walk or cycle to them, and to visit more places. In the field of leisure, correlations between facilities within a precinct and their use by local residents are less pronounced, probably reflecting a widespread propensity to maintain social networks and organize associated activities over larger geographical areas. Repeated changes of residence and/or workplace usually have little effect on preferences for leisure activities. Røe (1999) and Hjorthol (1998) agree that the activities of inner urban Norwegian households tend to be largely self-contained within a broader central area, particularly for entertainment and recreation, where choice of destination is more discretionary than for most other trip purposes. This is not surprising, since most cultural and entertainment facilities are centralized in Oslo, the capital. Inner urban residents use them more frequently than suburban residents. In contrast, shopping patterns appear

Table 7.1

Mobility styles in Freiburg

Mobility Style Group

Characteristics

Suggested Marketing Strategies

Modal Split by Trips

Domestic Traditionalists (24%)

Conservative or unpronounced views. Value family and material security. Inconspicuous mode choices. Below-average number of trips and travel distance. Large share of seniors.

Promotion of public transport in conventional media, Car focusing on value-for-money aspect. Special fares for seniors. Improvements to pedestrian environment in Public Transport neighbourhoods.

Risk-Oriented Car Cars – and, to some extent, Enthusiasts (20%) bicycles – are regarded as symbols of independence and objects of technological fascination. Risky, aggressive drivers. Almost exclusively males.

Expansion of bicycle infrastructure to cater for faster Car movement and greater challenges. Campaigns on road safety (emotive message) and fuel-efficient driving (technical message). Public Transport

Non-Motorized

Non-Motorised

36%

15%

49%

62%

5%

33%

Status-Oriented Motorists (15%)

Nature-Oriented Traditionalists (24%)

Decided Environmentalists (17%)

Car

54%

Public Transport

12%

Non-Motorized

34%

Cars are regarded as symbols of status and participation. Car use perceived to be essential for leisure purposes. Safety concerns about walking and cycling. Aversion to public transport. Predominantly females.

Supply of status vehicles with car-sharing organizations. Image campaign for public transport, first class compartments and security staff. Prestigious bicycle training courses.

Affinity to nature and to slow movement. Positive attitude to walking, cycling and public transport. Negative attitude to cars, though safety concerns sometimes lead to a preference for car use. Predominantly females.

Awareness campaigns on safety in public spaces and Car on public transport. Expansion of bicycle infrastructure to cater for slow movement. Public Transport Separation of walking and cycling paths.

High affinity to cycling. Support public transport. Reject car for sustainability concerns. Predominantly younger people.

Material and symbolic incentives to discontinue car Car ownership (wrecking bounties, guaranteed ride home schemes). Better coordination of modes (such as rail-bicycle) Public Transport with web-based, interactive information.

Non-Motorized

Non-Motorized

Source: Data derived from Götz (1999, 314–22) and Götz, K. et al. (1997)

25%

18%

57%

15%

25%

60%

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to coevolve with local conditions. Inner urban households perform more frequent, impulsive, shorter, mostly non-motorized trips to shops. Suburban residents tend to plan less frequent shopping trips but are more likely to use cars and choose shopping facilities outside their neighbourhood. Snellen et al. (1999) report a comparable pattern from a survey in Dutch cities, where 70 per cent of weekday grocery shopping is non-motorized, while on weekends 48 per cent of shopping trips are made by car over longer distances. Demographic differences, such as a higher number of young adult households and fewer households with children in inner urban neighbourhoods, can partly explain these observations. In addition, Hjorthol (1998) emphasizes that levels of education, gender and family size do influence mode choice – females, respondents with higher degrees and people with fewer children were found to use non-car modes more for most purposes. But Hjorthol (1998, 213) lends equal importance to the impression that inner urban residents are attracted to their environment precisely because its diversity and fine-grained structure reflect their aspiration to experience the city’s ‘character and soul’. At the periphery, residential aspirations revolve more around qualities such as easy access to nature and integration into a village community, ideals reported in the German case studies in Gestring et al. (1997). Characterizing Styles of Mobility In applying a combination of qualitative and quantitative instruments, the studies discussed indicate that any valid exploration of the lifestyle dimensions of measurable travel behaviour necessarily requires more than numerical analysis of transport statistics. Thus the difficult task of bringing together disciplines that have long led separated lives – social science, traditionally lacking spatial references, and transport research, traditionally blind to behavioural motives other than personal economic rationalism (Hesse and Trostorff 2000; Røe 1999). An outstanding example is Götz’s (1999) approach to improving public transit, walking and cycling by investigating the underlying motivations and symbolic content of mode choice, and applying a classification of mobility styles for target-group specific marketing. Götz argues that mobility cannot be understood without integrating physical (movement), social (accessibility) and reflected (social positioning) aspects. The database acquired through surveying in Freiburg, Germany, helped identify clusters of lifestyle parameters and mobility styles with suggestions for marketing of sustainable transport modes. These strategies integrate elements of soft and hard policy for simultaneous application to unfold their synergistic potential. The five mobility styles drawn from the Freiburg sample and described in detail in Götz et al. (1997) and Götz (1999, 314–22) are summarized in Table 7.1. The travel choices of the five groups that appear in Figure 7.1 originate from different dimensions of mobility, and of self (Jensen 1999). In the two groups labelled ‘traditionalists’, cultural/authentic aspects stand out as the dominant motivations for travel behaviour. Choices of transport modes and activity patterns evolve from a person’s values and beliefs. The marketing strategies suggested were devised to reaffirm these beliefs but influence/change behaviour. Clearly, support from these

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two groups is crucial to build a popular majority for sustainable transport and to reduce car travel in mainstream society. However, neither group is expected to be susceptible to behavioural change perceived as radical, extravagant, or an agenda of political elites (Götz et al. 1997). In contrast, the mobility behaviour of ‘statusoriented motorists’ is largely determined by status awareness (Jensen 1999) so the suggested marketing approaches attempt to promote the status content of more sustainable behavioural choices, to induce individuals to reflect on their behaviour and reposition themselves in their societal roles. The ‘risk-oriented motorists’ and ‘decided environmentalists’ act primarily from motives to transparently position themselves socially through choices of mobility behaviour (Jensen 1999). The affinity to respective preferred modes of transport derives from symbolic values and capacities to express a set of subjective persuasions, aspirations and affections. Thus suggested marketing strategies have a substantial content of emotional appeal aiming to affirm and intensify pre-existing behavioural impulses that appear desirable from a perspective of sustainable mobility. Under prevailing mobility conditions these groups offer less scope for practical behaviour change than the previous three (Götz et al. 1997). Jahn and Wehling (1999, 134–8) describe how, in a programmatic framework of mobility management, such marketing approaches could translate into actor and target-group specific packages of instruments to foster a process of ‘uncoupling mobility from automobility’. On a local level, it appears sensible to initiate such programs with groups or firms amenable to acting as pioneers, because they will generate noticeable impulses on changing mobility patterns and reliable markets for new mobility services. Of course Jahn and Wehling (1999) emphasize that the paradigm shift must eventuate in the three complementary realms identified earlier: spatial (physical) mobility, socio-spatial mobility (accessibility) and socio-cultural mobility. In this context, Holzapfel (1997, 78–89) speaks of a dichotomy of lifestyle regimes, which he terms ‘distance-intensive’ (entfernungsintensiv) and ‘experience-intensive’ (erfahrungsintensiv). In lieu of pursuing a moralistic approach towards ecological goals which, he argues, tends to consolidate the status quo rather than foster change, he emphasizes the need to promote an experience-intensive lifestyle incorporating proximity interactions, slowness and diversity as richer and more fulfilling than the predominant distance-intensive model. The attraction of experience-intensive lifestyles is not least seen in the reinstatement of personal autonomy over time, which has been largely lost in a quest to maximize autonomy over space through unhindered motorized mobility. Thus, it is recognized that top-down intervention is unsuitable for this task, and the question of how individuals really respond to the challenge of adjusting their mobility patterns to sustainability principles, regardless of where such a challenge may come from, remains open. Use of Urban Space By providing parameters for density, concentration and mix of land uses, planners determine conditions of movement within neighbourhoods (Barton 2000; Carmona et

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al. 2003; Newman and Kenworthy 1999). Total distances travelled and proportionate car use are usually lowest where neighbourhoods are closely integrated with the surrounding urban fabric, functionally and spatially connected to central facilities, which facilitates non-motorized travel, and where attractive public transport links exist to all relevant adjacent centres (Næss 1995; Taylor 2003). Certain minimum densities of activities, population and jobs per hectare are necessary to generate sufficient levels of social and commercial interaction within easy walking distance from homes, so that numbers of journeys remain within the neighbourhood. The ideal settlement density required to bring about such benefits is contested (Mees 2000). However, New Urbanism-inspired planning and design guidelines in Australia, emerging since the late 1990s (for example, Department of Infrastructure 2002; WAPC 2000) seem to point to a critical subcentre size of 10,000 residents and jobs, and an optimal ratio of 1.5 jobs per residential household or around one job per two residents (Morris and Kaufman 1996; Newman 2003). Taking a walkable 800-metre radius around a 200 ha subcentre suggests a minimum density of fifty residents and jobs per hectare if the entire catchment area is developed, and a proportionally greater density in areas of geographical constraints or if existing land uses are resilient to redevelopment. When density and multifunctionality focus on the neighbourhood centre, ideally clustered around the principal public transit station and decreasing towards the perimeter (Duany 2003; Taylor 2003), this tends to improve residents’ access to public transport and important service facilities (Murray and Wu 2003) and contributes to lower energy use in transport (Næss et al. 1995). To make walking within neighbourhoods attractive, it is critical to prioritize or at least provide equal rights to pedestrians over motorized traffic along internal road and path networks and to draw clear boundaries between public and private or semi-private spaces (Apel et al. 1997; Rudlin and Falk 1999). Employing traffic calming techniques, such as designing all vehicular roads for low speeds (30 km/h or less) and a legible, comfortable and direct network of pedestrian routes (Hathway 2000) best achieve this outcome. The elimination of physical barriers, particularly for wheelchair users, serves a similar purpose. Besides promoting non-motorized modes, such measures ensure that streets, squares and open spaces meet circulation needs and encourage civic interaction, thus restoring the vital social functions of open space (Engwicht 1998; Gehl 2001). Services in urban public transport networks must be frequent and offer viable alternatives to car use (Laube 1998; Mees 2000). At least during the day, frequencies should be high enough to eliminate the need to consult a timetable (with headways less than 12–15 minutes). Regular service should continue during evenings and weekends, preferably making some provision for use 24 hours a day, ensuring users a permanent choice (Nobis 1999). The network should connect well, with easy transfers between routes, and reflect a hierarchical settlement pattern of central places and corridors (Scheurer 2006; Vuchic 2005). In medium-sized and large cities, a spoked network of rail routes supported by local and orbital buses meet such requirements better than a bus-only system. Rail enables travel speeds that are more competitive with cars and facilitates market support for policies of land-use

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concentration and densification around transit stations (Newman and Kenworthy 1999; Scheurer et al. 2005). The interspersion and density hierarchy of a neighbourhood and configuration of public transport networks are effectively supply-side parameters influencing mobility patterns. Managing travel demand is another avenue of policy intervention. Individual choices of travel mode and destination do not always follow strictly rational, functional or predictable criteria (Jahn and Wehling 1999; Sager 2005). Superior sustainability performance cannot be achieved only by alterations to urban form, infrastructure and neighbourhood design (Holz-Rau 2001). Mobility policies need to extend to engaging with transport users, to instigate changes in their practical decisions, habitual socio-cultural behaviour, and environmental awareness about mobility. Parking Cars and Bicycles Often the most pressing neighbourhood issue is the impact of residents’ vehicles, particularly with respect to dwellings. Parking spaces and facilities for vehicular access add substantially to housing costs, take up valuable open space, and reduce residential density (Newman and Kenworthy 1999; Tönnes 1997). Over the last fifty years housing policy makers have been concerned to maximize parking space without compromising residential standards. However, recently, attempts have been made increasingly to substantially raise amenity and housing affordability by limiting the share of land dedicated to cars. Incentives to reduce or eliminate excessive car ownership include: • •

• •

Separating the marketing of units and parking spaces, thus making the costs of car parks more explicit. Concentrating non-dedicated parking facilities in neighbourhood perimeters, to create traffic-free interiors and to privilege access to centrally located public transport. Exempting non-car owning households or employees from mandatory parking provisions. Suspending parking provision requirements in planning schemes, to target residential developments exclusively for households without cars, improving housing affordability and open space, particularly in areas of high density.

While policy makers have paid attention to supplying increasing car parking space, they have been complacent towards accommodating bicycles (Hathway 2000). Where bicycle parks exist, they are often insufficiently sheltered against adverse weather conditions, theft and vandalism, too small, and located in areas such as basements not immediately accessible from the street. Overcoming such shortfalls, and providing adequate infrastructure for bicycle riders, can assist in reducing car dependence, particularly in areas with lower densities and less functional integration, where public transit and walking are inherently limited (Apel et al. 1997; Næss and Jensen 2000).

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Car-Sharing and Mobility Services Mobility services to facilitate lifestyles with low car use supplement disincentives for car ownership through fewer car parks. Originally initiated by informal networks, car-sharing is dominated now by professional and commercial organizations in many European cities (Wagner and Shaheen 1998). Membership in a carsharing organization provides access to a pool of different-sized vehicles within a neighbourhood or distributed across the city and, in some cases, several cities. Instant bookings are made using telephone or Internet, and payment is per hour and/or per kilometre. All vehicle acquisition, maintenance, insurance and operation costs, including petrol, rest with the car-sharing organization, relieving users from private car ownership responsibilities. Similar schemes are conceivable, and practised, for sharing bicycles, bicycle trailers and other non-motorized vehicles (Nobis 1999). Car-sharing schemes have begun to attract other industry players; in Switzerland vehicles are allocated to railway stations to enable rail travellers to reach dispersed destinations, and housing developers save costs by offering parks for shared vehicles (Bäumer 2004). Such collaborations challenge the prevailing paradigm of private car ownership and reduce the amount of vehicles in circulation yet offer similar mobility benefits (Jahn and Wehling 1999). Other mobility services include providing discounted and free periodical public transit tickets and discounting rail passes with the purchase/lease of housing units or through neighbourhood associations. User-friendly, inexpensive or free, homedelivery services by retailers, deliveries to authorized concierges in multi-unit developments, and/or via luggage trolleys, are substitutes for shopping trips. This summary of travel-conscious design and mobility management techniques in neighbourhoods exemplifies the significance of integration of supply and demandside policy approaches, and of collaborations between decision-making organizations and housing and transport users. Obviously supply-side measures to improve urban design or transport infrastructure tend to lack depth if unaccompanied by programs to influence user behaviour. Similarly, attempts to raise mobility awareness and induce behavioural adjustments may be futile if users fail to find a supportive physical environment and sustainable level of transport services. Combining ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ policies is crucial to achieve better sustainability performance. There is an emerging consensus that viable transport policies require significant demand management components, indicating the beginning of a fruitful collaboration between social policy and transport policy. Practical Implications How can we integrate distinct, lifestyle-derived individual and collective motivations for travel behaviour into local strategies and start to overcome the traditional division of top-down regulatory planning and bottom-up user-responsive visions? During the last decade, steps have been taken in some cities to depart from indiscriminate and ubiquitous parking provision in new residential developments often mandated

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in local planning regulations. Such approaches use any combination of measures introduced above, such as: separate marketing to make car parking costs explicit; excluding motorized traffic from all or part of a residential area; and relaxing parking provision requirements generally, at a statutory level. In successful examples, such as the new Freiburg-Vauban neighbourhood and Tübingen’s French Quarter in Germany (Soehlke 1999, Sperling 1999), tangible reductions in car ownership resulted from effective social contracts between stakeholders, spelling out each party’s rights and responsibilities. Governments receive guarantees that parking reductions will not generate spill-over effects elsewhere or result in deteriorating traffic conditions, developers obtain access to the market for car-reduced housing, and residents become confident that commitment to a car-reduced lifestyle will be supported by future governments and businesses (Bellaire 2000). In the increasingly dense Australian inner suburbs, there is an emerging trend away from rigid numerical statutory mandates for parking provision to performancebased standards to strengthen the roles of developers and users. Typically, this is achieved in tandem with a blanket ban on additional developments accessing onstreet resident-only parking permit schemes, which have reached capacity in many places (City of Melbourne 2005). Thus developers may choose to save costs by offering lower than average parking to buyers with lower than average car ownership. Users gain greater choice between housing units, with parking provisions matching their needs. Conversely, inaccessibility of on-street parking to new developments may encourage developers to increase on-site parking, providing an incentive for car ownership. It is too early to quantify such effects. In European cities, marketing campaigns maximizing pro-public transport behaviour change often supplement public transport infrastructure projects. In Australia large-scale extensions of public transport systems have been less common recently (Scheurer et al. 2005), yet individualized marketing campaigns are still employed within ‘TravelSmart’, travel demand management programs funded by federal and State governments. Thus, TravelSmart is often effectively limited to mobilizing latent demand for existing public transport services or to supporting service, not infrastructure, improvements. TravelSmart has had well-documented successes (James and Brög 2003), but its scope to shift travel to non-car modes is limited (Scheurer 2005). There are concerns that some evaluations have overstated its impact (Morton and Mees 2005). The potential and limitations of campaigns such as TravelSmart highlight the need for policy integration and constructive relationships between stakeholders to effect change from car dependence towards sustainable modes of transport. Policy measures in support of sustainable transport, at local, metropolitan, national and international levels, are unlikely to alter the workings of a city, its people and its culture, if pursued in isolation. They need to be part of broad policy packages where success in one area can breed further initiatives and support self-reinforcing, ‘virtuous cycles’ of reform (Kaufmann 2000) towards better sustainability performance in urban mobility.

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References Aalborg Universitet (ed.) (1999), Byøkologisk Velfærdsudvikling: Livsstil, Arkitektur og Ressourcekredsløb (Aalborg: Aalborg Universitet). Apel, D., Lehmbrock, M., Pharoah, T. and Thiemann-Linden, J. (1997), Kompakt, Mobil, Urban: Stadtentwicklungskonzepte zur Verkehrsvermeidung im Internationalen Vergleich (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik). Barton, H. (ed.) (2000), Sustainable Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods (London: Earthscan). Bäumer, D. (2004), ‘Come Together: Involving Housing Companies in Mobility Management Action’, Proceedings 8th European Conference on Mobility Management, Lyon, France, 5–7 May. ECOMM [website], , accessed 12 January 2007. Bellaire, N. (2000), ‘Wohnen Ohne Auto. Planung und Realisierung Autofreier und Autoreduzierter Quartiere in Nordrhein-Westfalen’, RaumPlanung 90: June, 123–7. Brunsing, J. and Frehn, M. (eds) (1999), Stadt der Kurzen Wege. Zukunftsfähiges Leitbild oder Planerische Utopie? (Dortmund: Institut für Raumplanung). Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T. and Tiesdell, S. (2003), Public Places – Urban Spaces: The Dimensions of Urban Design (Oxford: Architectural Press). Chandra, L. (2005), ‘Modelling the Impact of Urban Form and Transport Provision on Transport-Related Greenhouse Gas Emissions’ [Masters thesis] Submitted to the Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy, Murdoch University (Western Australia). City of Melbourne (2005), Carlton Parking and Access Strategy City of Melbourne [website], , accessed 12 September 2005. Department of Infrastructure (2002), Melbourne 2030: Planning for Sustainable Growth (Melbourne: Department of Infrastructure). Duany, A. (2003), ‘Neighbourhood Design in Practice’, in Neal (ed.). Engwicht, D. (1998), Street Reclaiming: Creating Liveable Streets and Vibrant Communities (Annandale: New Society Publishers). Friedrichs, J. and Hollaender, K. (eds) (1999), Stadtökologische Forschung. Theorien und Anwendungen (Berlin: Analytica). Gehl, J. (2001), Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space, 5th Edition. (Copenhagen: Danish Architectural Press). Gestring, N., Heine, H., Mautz, R., Mayer, H. and Siebel, W. (1997), Ökologie und Urbane Lebensweise. Untersuchungen Zu Einem Anscheinend Unauflöslichen Widerspruch (Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Vieweg). Götz, K. (1999), ‘Mobilitätsstile – Folgerungen Für Zielgruppenspezifisches’, in Friedrichs and Hollaender (eds). Götz, K., Jahn, T. and Schultz, I. (1997), Mobilitätsstile – Ein Sozial-Okologischer Untersuchungsansatz [Forschungsbericht Stadtverträgliche Mobilität, Band 7] (Frankfurt: CITY:mobil Forschungsverbund). Gwiasda, P. (1999), ‘Nutzungsmischung – Stadt der Kurzen Wege für die Bewohner?’, in Brunsing and Frehn (eds). Hathway, T. (2000), ‘Planning Local Movement Systems’ in Barton (ed.).

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Hesse, M. and Trostorff, B. (2000) Raumstrukturen, Siedlungsentwicklung und Verkehr – Interaktionen und Integrationsmöglichkeiten [Diskussionspapier] (Erkner: Institut für Regionalentwicklung und Strukturplanung). Hjorthol, R. (1998), ‘Reurbanisation and Its Potential for the Reduction of Car Use: An Analysis of Preferences of Residence, Activity and Travel Pattern in the Oslo Area’, Scandinavian Housing and Planning Research 15, 211–26. Holz-Rau, C. (2001), ‘Bessere Organisation Statt Mehr Infrastruktur’, Verkehrszeichen 17: 1, 12–17. Holzapfel, H. (1997), Autonomie Statt Auto: Zum Verhältnis von Lebensstil, Umwelt und Ökonomie am Beispiel des Verkehrs (Bonn: Economica). Institut für Landes- und Stadtentwicklungsforschung NRW (ed.) (1997), Planung und Realisierung Autoarmer Stadtquartiere: Anforderungen – Konzepte – Chancen der Umsetzung (Dortmund: Institut für Raumplanung). Jahn, T. and Wehling, P. (1999), ‘Das Mehrdimensionale Mobilitätskonzept: Ein Theoretischer Rahmen für die Stadtökologische Mobilitätsforschung’, in Friedrichs and Hollaender (eds). James, B. and Brög, W. (2003), ‘TravelSmart/Individualised Marketing in Perth, Western Australia’, in Tolley (ed.). Jensen, O. (1994), ‘Ecological Building – or Just Environmentally Sound Planning?’, Arkitektur DK 7, 353–67. Jensen, O. (1999), ‘Livsstilsrum – Udkast Til En Teori Om Livsform, Livsstil Og Stil’, in Aalborg Universitet (ed.). Kaufmann, V. (2000), ‘Modal Practices: From the Rationales Behind Car and Public Transport Use to Coherent Transport Policies’, World Transport Policy and Practice 6:3, 8–17. Laube, F. (1998), ‘Optimising Urban Passenger Transport’ [PhD thesis] Submitted to Murdoch University (Western Australia). Mees, P. (2000), A Very Public Solution: Transport in the Dispersed City (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press). Morris W. and Kaufman, C. (1996), Mixed Use Development: New Designs for New Livelihoods (Brisbane: Queensland Department of Tourism, Small Business and Industry). Morton, A. and Mees, P. (2005), ‘Too Good to Be True? An Assessment of the Melbourne Travel Behaviour Modification Pilot’, Proceedings of the 28th Australasian Transport Research Forum, Sydney, Australia, 28–30 September. PATREC [website], , accessed 16 January 2007. Murray, A. and Wu, X. (2003), ‘Accessibility Tradeoffs in Public Transit Planning’, Journal of Geographical Systems 5, 93–107. Næss, P. (1995), Urban Form and Energy Use for Transport: A Nordic Experience. [Doktor Ingeniøravhandling] (Trondheim: Norges Tekniske Høgskole). Næss, P. and Jensen, O. (2000), Boliglokalisering og Transport i Frederikshavn (Aalborg: Aalborg Universitet). Næss, P., Røe, P. and Larsen, S. (1995), ‘Travelling Distances, Modal Split and Transportation Energy in 30 Residential Areas in Oslo’, Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 38:3, 349–70.

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Neal, P. (ed.) (2003), Urban Villages and the Making of Communities (London: Spon Press). Newman, P. (2003), ‘Building Sustainability into Metropolitan Planning’, [Unpublished paper] Metropolitan Planning, Development and Design Summit, Melbourne, Australia, 23–24 October. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999), Sustainability and Cities – Overcoming Automobile Dependence (Washington: Island Press). Nobis, C. (1999), ‘Neue Mobilität’, in Sperling (ed.) Rudlin, D. and Falk, N. (1999), Building the 21st Century Home. The Sustainable Urban Neighbourhood (Oxford: Architectural Press). Røe, P. (1999), ‘Intra-Urban Travel and Spatial-Structural Constraints: An Investigation of Travel and Activity Patterns in 30 Residential Areas in Oslo’, [Unpublished paper] 13th AESOP Congress, Bergen, Norway, 7–11 July. Sager, T. (2005), ‘Footloose and Forecast-Free: Hypermobility and the Planning of Society’, [Unpublished paper] AESOP Congress, Vienna, Austria, 13–16 July. Scheurer, J. (2001), ‘Urban Ecology, Innovations in Housing Policy and the Future of Cities: Towards Sustainability in Neighbourhood Communities’ [PhD thesis] Submitted to the Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy, Murdoch Unversity (Western Australia). Scheurer, J. (2005), ‘Achieving Mode Share Targets in Australian Cities through Policy Integration: Are We on Track?’ Urban Policy and Research 23: 4, 525– 30. Scheurer, J. (2006), Moving People in Melbourne’s North-East (Melbourne: Metropolitan Transport Forum). Scheurer, J., Kenworthy, J. and Newman, P. (2005), Most Liveable and Best Connected? The Economic Benefits of Investing in Public Transport in Melbourne (Melbourne: Metropolitan Transport Forum). Snellen, D., Borgers, A. and Timmermans, H. (1999), The Influence of Urban Form on Activity Patterns: Aspects of Data Collection in Nine Dutch Cities, [Unpublished paper] 13th AESOP Congress, Bergen, 7–11 July. Soehlke, C. (1999), Stadt mit Eigenschaften. Tübingen – Städtebaulicher Entwicklungsbereich Stuttgarter Straße/Französisches Viertel (Tübingen: Stadtsanierungsamt Tübingen). Sperling, C. (ed.) (1999), Nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung beginnt im Quartier: Ein Praxis- und Ideenhandbuch für Stadtplaner, Baugemeinschaften, Bürgerinitiativen am Beispiel des sozial-ökologischen Modellstadtteils Freiburg-Vauban (Freiburg: Forum Vauban/Öko-Institut). Taylor, D. (2003), ‘Connectivity and Movement’, in Neal, P. (ed.). Tolley, R. (ed.) (2003), Sustainable Transport: Planning for Walking and Cycling in Urban Environments (Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing). Tönnes, M. (1997), ‘Weniger Kosten — Mehr Wohnen. Die ökonomischen Vorteile Autofreier Wohnquartiere’, in Institut für Landes- und Stadtentwicklungsforschung NRW (ed.). Vuchic, V. (2005), Urban Transit: Operation, Planning and Economics (Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons).

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Wagner, C. and Shaheen, S. (1998), ‘Car Sharing and Mobility Management: Facing New Challenges with Technology and Innovative Business Planning’, World Transport Policy and Practice 4: 2, 39–43. WAPC (2000), Liveable Neighbourhoods. A Western Australian Government Sustainable Cities Initiative, 2nd Edition (Perth: Western Australian Planning Commission).

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Chapter 8

Indicators, Audits and Measuring Success Richard Hyde, Richard Moore, Lydia Kavanagh, Melinda Watt and Karen Schianetz

Introduction An increasing number and widening range of environmental assessment tools have been produced in recent years. However, there has been little discourse over how successful these tools are in assisting policy makers to meet their objectives. Building environmental assessment (BEA) tools aim to contribute to the successful implementation of sustainability policies and initiatives in housing. This chapter examines the utility of BEA tools for sustainability policy making by addressing a series of questions: • • • • • • •

Why are BEA systems needed to progress sustainable development? What models underlie the main two principles-to-indicator approaches? What are the weaknesses of principles-to-indicator methods? How are BEAs applied to measure housing sustainability? How do BEAs reward best practice? What demonstration projects exist? What is the significance of BEAs in terms of evidence-based planning policy?

Barriers to Ecologically Sustainable Development A UK study (Wheeler 2003) of sustainable housing revealed some social and economic, as well as environmental, barriers to achieving ecologically sustainable development (ESD) and identified six main barriers: • • • • • •

Fiscal systems involve disincentives. Planning systems and regulations confuse rather than support green proponents. Lack of investor and developer interest. Perceived higher costs. No agreed standard or definition of sustainability. Lack of consumer demand for sustainable houses.

One of the main problems in the UK is lack of a common standard or definition for sustainable houses, a fundamental starting point in addressing these barriers. Australia

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(Wales and Meed 2005) has a similar problem. BEA schemes can offer common standards by promoting sustainable housing through measuring and assessing levels of sustainability. However, the large and increasing number of tools and systems have added complexity and confusion to emerging systems of assessment, begging the question: What are the roles and capabilities of BEA systems to address the barriers to sustainable housing? Role of Building Environmental Assessment Environmental assessment is a method to examine the impacts of human processes on ecological systems and has been integrated into numbers of systems and tools examining the built environment. Most environmental assessment methods essentially examine a process. For a building, this might be the design process before construction or the operational process after construction. Processes can be examined in terms of inputs, outputs, and the activities within the process. Environmental indicators can be used to examine all these aspects of the process and to assist with measuring its performance. Such audits are usually done independently to ensure rigour. Indicators, manageable measures, are usually elements of audits. For example, the energy consumption of a house is used as an indicator of environmental performance because it is recorded in energy bills, which are relatively easy to access. Nesting BEA in design is not easy because it involves linking all design aspects. Roaf (2004) argues for ‘closing the loop’: considering the design, construction, and post-construction evaluation. Feedback occurs at the beginning of the design process of the next project and for retrofitting and improving the building during its life cycle. Tools have been developed to address this complexity and assist in steering projects to sustainable outcomes. The models that underlie these tools indicate their capabilities. Discussions of two examples of the main BEA-related models follow: firstly, the ISO 14000 (based on a process-oriented model) and, secondly, the principles-to-indicator approach (based on an input–output model). ISO 14000 ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management, and offers a framework for developing environmental management systems and the supporting audit. ISO 14000 evolved from the Rio World Earth Summit (1992) and a number of national standards, BS 7750 being the first. Subsequently, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) investigated how such standards might benefit business and industry, and an international standard (ISO 14000, 2006) was developed. ISO 14001 is the key standard of the ISO 14000 series, specifying a framework of control for an environmental management system through which a third party can certify organizations. The approach is concerned primarily with improving the process. Rogers (2002, 6) has summarized the limitations of the ISO 14000 standards as:

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Absence of links with and specific policy, such as Agenda 21, and sustainable outcomes. Emphasis on legal requirements as a basis for performance. Limited involvement of interested parties (stakeholders) in the setting of performance outcomes. Concentration on process improvement rather than on actual outcomes. Perceived application of the standard to industrial rather than service sectors.

By way of an example, in Sri Lanka, in promotion implying environmental achievements, asbestos sheeting was advertised using an ISO 14000 manufacturing process (Baggs 2003) but the product has not met a range of other sustainability measures. Hence, it is agued that more holistic models are needed. Principles-to-Indicator Model Environmental assessment models that address input, process and output factors are commonly called ‘principles-to-indicator models’, for example using input factors in the form of policy frameworks and/or principles. Here the process is examined through indicators, and output factors from the indicators are matched to benchmarks, to enable a comparison with similar processes. For a given process policy, sound environmental principles are defined, then indicators are developed and the process is assessed using ‘best practice’ benchmarks. Mawhinney (2002) argues that the chief limitation of this model is the process of determining best practice. The model can be criticized according to certain criteria: • • •

The extent to which sound environmental principles are used. The logical match between the indicator suite and its antecedent principles and policy framework. How the level of the benchmarks is derived to evaluate the indicators.

However, the principles-to-indicator approach has integrated a number of tools for use in evaluating buildings. Building Environmental Assessment Tools Many BEA tools use one or both models and are criticized in relation to: • • •

The theoretical bases of policies and principles arising from how ‘sustainability’ is defined. How principles and indicators are linked to policy and principles, and missing indicators. How best practice is defined and the rigour by which it is assessed.

How the tools define the success of a particular project links to how sustainability is defined. Organizations have their own measures of success, associated with how they define sustainable development and the principles they use to run their

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business. Blair et al. (2003) applied a ‘balanced theory’ perspective to examine housing, developing a monitoring assessment tool to measure the affordability and sustainability of greenfield suburban developments and master-planned communities in Australia. The tool included an indicator suite, which used economic, social and environmental criteria, with potential for use in longitudinal studies to track progress and provide evidence of achievements in meeting policy objectives and addressing principles. However, the tool requires further work to advance the triple bottom line principles that underlie this approach, particularly in developing the indicator suite. Problems with such tools involve internal inconsistencies in the structure of the models on which they are based. Mawhinney (2002) points out that missing parameters in many systems can influence the results achieved. Tools can be mapped and analysed in terms of the development scale – city, precinct or building – and when the assessment is made: after construction, in the operational phase, or during the planning and design phase. Debate exists over the best time to make assessments. Advocates of collecting operational data argue that assessments based on actual performance are more valid. Advocates of the design phase of assessment argue that it important to predict performance at the design phase because it is hard to rectify problems after construction. Tools and standards currently emerging arise from a number of sources, and private sector industry groups are increasingly playing a role. City, Precinct and Building Scales An ‘ecological footprint’ is a measure of how much productive land and water is required to produce all the resources consumed and to absorb all the waste generated using existing technology. Ecological footprints can be calculated for an individual, a city, a country, or humanity. The unit of measurement is land, a global hectare or one hectare of biologically productive space of world-average productivity. This type of tool assesses progress towards, or away from, a sustainable way of living given certain assumptions and limitations and offers a monitoring tool for cities. Precinct-level tools are less common and tend to utilize a broader set of indicators that can be linked to principles or policy initiatives. For example, the BRE Sustainable Development Rating tool (Roaf et al. 2000) contains environmental, economic and social indicators. The Green Globe 21 Precinct Planning and Design Standard has a similar direction, aligning indicators with the master planning and design processes of mixed-use developments (Hyde et al. 2005). These tools include indicators that can be aligned to developers’ and planning authorities’ policies and strategies, with the potential to support sustainable developments. Government and industry sectors have developed tools at the building level (Reardon 2005, Section 10.1). BEA rating tools have been developed for specific countries and building types. The Property Council, through the Green Building Council of Australia (2007), has been developing a voluntary standard and tool for sustainable building development, Green Star. Australian government tools include the National Australian Building Environmental Rating Scheme (NABERS), a federal initiative, and BASIX, the New South Wales government rating tool. BASIX

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is a mandatory tool linked to the design approval process for houses. NABERS HOME compares the environmental performance of a home with a theoretical average home in the same area, using tools such as the Energy Smart Home Rating. The Green Star Rating aims to compare energy bills complemented with a Virtual Home Audit, which investigates ways to reduce energy waste and provide the owner with a personal Energy Action Plan. (Hyde forthcoming) Finally, there are a few ‘international’ tools, for example, with respect to the travel and tourism industry. Voluntary standards Green Globe 21 and Earthcheck have been developed for the design, construction and operation of tourism-related buildings (Hyde et al. 2005). Industries such as tourism share a common set of objectives that are part of the globalization of the industry and sustain a global system of principles and indicators. In this case, a strong link has been forged between international policies for sustainability founded by Agenda 21 and the indicators and standards used in the system. Consequently, this approach provides a level of rigour. The policy measures can be logically connected to the indictors in the system and linked to the way benchmarks are measured. Rigour produces a conundrum for this type of approach. Highly rigorous tools comprehensively match the principles and/or policy frameworks with the indicators. Indicators require information that can be easily collected and yield valid data. Best practice standards are not biased or based on impractical levels of performance. Very often highly rigorous tools are data hungry and expensive to service, making them impractical to use in the schema of some organizations. However, lack of rigour makes the tools useless. As rigour is often traded against practicality of use, tools usually include a checklist for pre-assessment, which allows potential users to quickly check to what extent their project engages with environmental criteria. Green Globe 21 has a pre-commitment questionnaire, which assesses the potential of a project to meet its standards. The advantages of these systems include saving time in collecting and validating data, but experts apply the criteria best. An example is the NABERS (2007) tool for housing, which started as a comprehensive environmental assessment approach, and has been simplified for use by laypersons through a web-based system. Measuring Success Tools have been applied to measure the success of projects in a number of innovative ways, generally through ‘push’ or ‘pull’ strategies. Pull strategies encourage voluntary standards for developers. Developers can be rewarded for ‘best practice’ sustainable development through incentives, such as marketing advantages, ecolabels and branding. Demonstration and flagship projects in sustainable design are seen to pull the market towards improved performance and bring reputability to participating developers. At the other end ‘base-line’ building developers need pushing to improve the environmental performance of their buildings. Government based tools, such as NABERS HOME and BASIX, can achieve this goal.

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Tools can facilitate the development process in the planning and design phases or, better, governance in the operational phase. Examples of policy initiatives being examined through an environmental assessment method are not common but can yield information on the effectiveness of policy decisions. Such studies compare housing development types to assess the merit of policy decisions. Best practice can be measured and rewarded by combining and integrating a number of assessment tools to meet legal requirements. The Novotel Hotel, located in the Novotel/Ibis complex at Olympic Park in Homebush Bay (Sydney) provides an example of rewarding best practice. Built as part of the infrastructure for the 2000 Olympic Games, the Sydney Olympic Park Authority continued sound environmental policies after the Games ended by engaging a number of strategies to ensure continual improvement of its facilities. Legislation governing the Sydney Olympic Park Authority (2006) focused on ensuring best use and management of the precinct at Olympic Park, mandating sound master-planning, good environmental performance of the hotel, and involving ‘green lease arrangements’ that included sustainable goals in the brief and in the post construction ISO 1400 Environmental Management system. This green design process was supported by environmentally appropriate infrastructure, such as the Olympic Park grey-water main, which provided a fifty per cent reduction in potable water use in the building. Numerous small eco-efficient environmental strategies significantly reduced the environmental footprint of the building, such as solar hot water, maximizing daylight and operable windows. By purchasing green power, the hotel became effectively net carbon neutral. The hotel has performed well in assessments against international standards, thus gaining rewards for ‘best practice’ compared to international industry standards. In this project assessment tools functioned to demonstrate best practice and the fulfilment of requirements in the green lease arrangement. Would best practice have been achieved without the latter? Both pull and push drivers are needed to address barriers to sustainable housing. Whilst this project primarily used existing technology and systems, other developers seek to use new technology and innovative social and economic strategies to improve sustainability. Such demonstration projects tend to define sustainability in their own terms, requiring different assessment tools. Creating Demonstration Projects Beddington Zero (BedZED) in London is an example of a sustainability demonstration project. This 1.7 ha brownfield residential and commercial development was designed to meet a number of environmental, social and economic goals. High benchmarks included carbon-neutral energy efficiency and taking account of social sustainability, such as facilitating use of public transport and economic needs (BRESCU 2002). Conventional housing does not meet such targets and required innovative design and green technology, such as passive solar heating through natural light, solar panels to generate electricity, materials with strong thermal properties and a whole-of-site rain collection system. BRE assessment systems assisted in validating the design

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and the scheme was assessed after construction using the BRE EcoHomes design phase tool. Whilst the EcoHomes tool gave the BedZED scheme an excellent rating, it failed to identify additional issues revealed since it developed, including the need for a broader definition of sustainability in the precinct design, the need for ongoing assessment after the design phase, and the importance of qualitative aspects of sustainability (drivers for value adding). Precincts such as BedZED emerge from a housing delivery process unique to the UK. Use of housing trusts, as in the case of BedZED, allows for a high degree of control over the delivery process, the administration of tenure, and the ongoing operation of the development. The crux of the problem lies in the master-planning approach taken: whether there are environmental goals used in this process and whether there is a sufficiently experienced multidisciplinary team to implement these goals. A community consultation plan for social improvement is often missed in masterplanning processes. The BedZED project used community consultations to create a neighbourhood renewal agenda that ranged from creating private and public green spaces for sun to community facilities and healthy lifestyles (BRESCU 2002, 26). Social progress was only one of a range of master-planning strategies, particularly relating to architectural design and landscaping, and formed the basic model for the precinct. Economic strategies were implemented to improve income streams associated with the proportion of housing reserved for low-income families to reduce their reliance on government subsidies. Mixed-use buildings with industrial functions were incorporated. Often mixed use involves incompatibility and conflicts between the interests of business and house owners. In the BedZED project, this was avoided through selecting compatible businesses, careful planning, and design. BRESCU (2002) argues that the BedZED planning and design approach forms a model for sustainable housing development for use in other circumstances. There is a strong need for ongoing assessment after the design phase. The benefit of demonstration projects is that they identify positives and negatives. Reports of the operation of BedZED have identified a number of issues in the use of green technology, such as reports (Slavin 2006) of the failure of the Biomas CHP system, which is central to achieving the zero fossil fuel energy target. Yet, from the social perspective, user feedback was positive. Residents like the light and airy quality of the scheme and roof terraces, despite reporting some overheating of spaces for sun in summer. Their property values are higher than adjacent housing, suggesting lower operating costs. In summary, BedZED is a successful demonstration project yet has not made full use of assessment systems to help measure this success. Without a systematic approach to ongoing monitoring, and use of broader assessment methods, evaluation is ad hoc and left to the media. Lack of systematic post-occupancy evaluation creates further barriers to implementing sustainable housing. Pull strategies for implementing sustainable housing must be complemented by government push measures.

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Supporting Evidence-Based Planning Policy Assessment tools, such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that emerged to support governmental planning and regulatory processes, represent push strategies for sustainable housing. Currently, the BCA is being transformed from a health-andsafety and fire mitigation standard to a code highlighting environmental standards. These environmental standards have focused mainly on energy efficiency as a criterion, which leaves local councils and developers to deal with other environmental standards. The failure of planning processes to fully support moves to sustainable housing has been a major barrier (Wheeler 2003). Can we nest an effective assessment process in the current planning and development system? Would this assist in measuring the sustainability success of projects? In discussing these questions, the Currumbin Ecovillage located on the Gold Coast, Queensland, provides an example of assessment applied to support the planning and development processes. The delivery of housing in Australia tends to be fragmented and is largely a developer-led system. A developer purchases the land, forms a subdivision and then sells parcels of the land to subdevelopers, who use the land to build houses, hotels, retail buildings and so on. Local governments assume control of the legal title of a precinct or it remains under the control of the developer and subdevelopers or owners as ‘community title’. While the Gold Coast Council controls the process, a range of federal, State and local government initiatives to promote sustainability influence developments. State legislation is dominated by the Integrated Planning Act, which promotes ESD through integrating State and local planning systems. Local planning responds to Desirable Environmental Outcome statements in the form of policies and codes. Community input and environmental impacts are assessed. Input is obtained on environmental principles and strategies used in a development, methods and procedures for assessment depending on many factors, most importantly, the scale, complexity and sensitivity of the development to sustainability issues (Thomas 2005, 123). Planning system outcomes can be achieved by intervention at a number of levels. The Currumbin Ecovillage was a significant development in terms of local social, environmental and economic sensitivities, including: conflicts in defining sustainability with respect to the development and sustainability standards, lack of clarity in procedures (the compliance process was expensive, time consuming and exhaustive), and lack of a common metric for the regulatory system and the developer. The ecovillage at Currumbin was a 110 ha site on the Gold Coast hinterland providing for 144 ecohomes in a variety of residential configurations, together with community facilities, including a small village centre. The ecovillage proposal incorporated a wide range of sustainability features, including: autonomy in water, waste water and energy; 80 per cent open space; more than 50 per cent environmental reserve; negligible vegetation loss and extensive native plant regeneration; edible landscapes and permaculture; and waste minimization and recycling. The developers claimed that it exceeded international and Australian sustainability best practices

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and it was hailed by government and industry as a leading example of housing sector ESD. Substantiating these claims to best practice are very different definitions of sustainability within the international community and within Australia. McManus (2005) argues for a uniquely Australian definition of ESD, mostly concerned with retaining ecological systems. Whilst useful at one level, it is hard to apply this definition to urban development. Hence it can be argued that the Integrated Planning Act, which has its foundation in ESD, should be augmented through new definitions of sustainability dealing with urban contexts and international practices. Conflicts over definitions increase the complexity and ambiguity of procedure and assessment. Thomas (2005) reports a lack of clear procedures for the implementation of the Integrated Planning Act. Currumbin code compliance meant extensive work. The documentation needed to gain planning approval proved costly, time consuming and exhaustive (Walton 2006). Environmental criteria for autonomous energy, water and waste services for the site meant council conditions on a range of additional measures in the approval process. A range of codes was needed to cover the biophysical aspects of designing and building houses. Ecohomes imply a reduced demand for services. By-laws were needed to cover social and management issues, to ensure efficient use of resources, and to minimize demand for services. Procedures for this type of sustainable development sit outside normal code compliance processes and are not assessable under regular planning codes, creating a need for new metrics to support assessment procedures. Shane and Graedle (2000) and McManus (2005) point to the importance of metrics to demonstrate environmental efficiency measures for environmental impact assessment. It is argued that metrics cannot fulfil all the needs of planning assessment because metrics are generic and require interpretation in the local context. However, metrics could form an aspect of the process. In the case of Currumbin, a metric was created from a range of authorities, including Gold Coast Water for the water benchmarks and the Environmental Protection Agency for waste treatment. A common metric between regulators and developers would expedite the compliance process, carrying forward the intent of the Integrated Planning Act and offering simpler procedures for implementing planning approvals for sustainable developments. Research to apply the Green Globe Precinct Planning and Design Standard at Currumbin (Moore et al. 2006) aims to provide a definition of sustainability grounded in Agenda 21 and drawn from a definition of sustainability appropriate for such communities to reconcile environmental, economic and social factors. The metric is being offered to developers, planners and other stakeholders to reduce confusion in the application of sustainable development in practice. Conclusion Using metrics that follow the ISO 14000 and principles-to-indicator approach for BEA tools provides a logical structure to deal with the complexity of environmental

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management and assessment. The application of such tools demonstrates ways to address barriers to sustainable development. At Olympic Park the lack of an agreed standard or definition of sustainability was addressed by applying the ISO 14000 as a method of assessment at the master-planning and design stages to improve the predicted environmental performance of the precinct and the buildings and ongoing monitoring of the precinct in its operational phase ensured continual improvement of performance. In the BedZED project, the barriers were financial disincentives to green design particularly in the area of green technology. Government subsidies were needed to apply photovoltaic systems for electricity cogeneration. High benchmarks required ramping up engineering capabilities and addressing costs in the renewable energy sector. However, technical reliability and economic barriers were mitigated by mixed-use development and drawing on other sources of income to subsidize rentals. Qualitative aspects of sustainable design, such as light and airy buildings, sun spaces and private open space seemed to drive an unusual level of private investor interest. Barriers of perceived higher costs were addressed by value adding and encouraging consumer demand. The importance of using assessment metrics based on sustainable planning and design principles was also demonstrated in the case of Currumbin Ecovillage. Creating a generic metric for all stakeholders in such community housing projects is crucial to address barriers to integrating sustainability in the planning process. Metrics support evidence-based planning by reducing barriers related to lack of clarity over defining sustainability, but cannot address all criteria in the planning assessment process. References Baggs, D. (2003), ‘Materials in Context: Design Decision Making for Sustainable Materials’, Ecospecifier Seminar, Brisbane, Spring. Blair, J., Prasad, D., Judd, B., Soebarto, V., Hyde, R., Zehner, B. and Kumar, A. (2003), Affordability and Sustainability Outcomes of ‘Greenfield’ Suburban Development and Master Planned Communities – A Triple Bottom Line Assessment [Final Report] (Sydney: University of New South Wales–University of Western Sydney Research Centre of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute). BRESCU (2002), BedZED-Beddington Zero Energy Development Sutton [General Information Report 89, Energy and Efficiency Best Practice in Housing], , accessed 3 September 2005. Green Building Council of Australia (2007), [website] , accessed 15 January 2007. Hyde, R. (forthcoming), NABERS HOME – Applications in Teaching and Practice Green Island [website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Hyde, R., Moore R., Kavanagh, L., Watt, M., Prasad, D. and Blair, J. (2005), PPDS Handbook, Green Globe 21/Earthcheck online at Earthcheck [website], , accessed 6 January 2007.

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McManus, P. (2005), Vortex Cities to Sustainable Cities: Australia’s Urban Challenge (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press). Mawhinney, M. (2002), Sustainable Development: Understanding the Green Debates (Oxford: Blackwell Science). Moore R., et al. (2006), ‘Another Tool’ in Skates (ed.). NABERS (2007), National Australian Building Environmental Rating Scheme [website], . Reardon, C. (ed.) (2005), Your Home Technical Manual, 3rd Edition. (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office). Roaf, S. (2004), Closing the Loop: Benchmarks for Sustainable Buildings (London: RIBA). Roaf, S., Yates, A., Brownhill, D. and Howard, N. (2000), EcoHomes: The Environmental Rating Tool For Homes (Walford: BRE Bookshop). Rogers, S. (2002), Green Globe – Beyond ISO 14000 for the Travel and Tourism Sector (Australia: Avteq Consulting Services). Shane, E. and Graedle, T. (2000), ‘Urban Environmental Sustainability Metrics: A Provisional Set’, Journal of International Planning and Management 43:5, 643– 63. Skates, H. (ed.) (2006), Fabricating Sustainability. Proceedings of the Australia New Zealand Architectural Science Association Conference, Wellington, New Zealand, Victoria University of Wellington [CD and website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Slavin, T. (2006), ‘Living in a Dream’, Guardian, 17 May, Guardian [website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Sydney Olympic Park Authority (2006) [website], , accessed 24 November 2006. Thomas, I. (2005), Environmental Impact Assessment in Australia: Theory and Practice [4th Edition] (Annandale: Federation Press). Wheeler, J. (2003), ‘One Million Sustainable Homes’, WWF [website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Wales, N. and Meed, E. (2005), ‘Barriers to Sustainable Suburbs’, Transactions of the Wessex Institute [website], , accessed 17 January 2007. Walton, C. (2006), ‘The Ecovillage At Currumbin’, Ecovillage [website], , accessed 17 January 2007.

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Chapter 9

Sustainable Water Systems and Household Practices Joe Hurley and David Mercer

Introduction The fundamental challenge for urban water management today is unsustainable consumption. Water is essential to earth’s living creatures and central to maintaining the earth’s ecosystems. If we do not respect the environmental processes that provide clean water, and use water wisely, we undermine the earth’s basic building blocks of life (Postel 2005). The environmental impacts of inefficient water use highlight the critical importance of designing and implementing sustainable water management practices. In part, this chapter seeks to redress an imbalance in current literature (Heathcote 2005), emphasizing the importance of agricultural, rather than urban, water consumption. While acknowledging that large complexes such as hospitals and casinos consume disproportionately large amounts of water (Age 2006), this chapter focuses on domestic water use in Australian cities, where most homes are connected to, and reliant on, metropolitan-wide distribution systems. We examine ways that water is used in such settings, review various programs and policies aimed at changing urban water use behaviour, analyse methods for (and barriers to) achieving change, and propose future directions for sustainable domestic water consumption. The Melbourne case studies discussed have relevance for all urban environments. Urban Water Systems In many Australian cities, large, centralized infrastructure systems that have provided high quality water to households are meeting their limits (Auditor-General of New South Wales 2005). Australia has a population of around twenty million, which might well reach thirty million by 2050. Over many years rainfall patterns in many parts of Australia have steadily declined. In Perth, a 21 per cent drop in rainfall has translated into a 64 per cent reduction in water flows into the main water storages. In south-east Queensland, which welcomes 50,000 new residents each year, annual precipitation has been falling since the 1980s. However, there are entrenched barriers to implementing alternative decentralized models of water delivery and treatment, dramatically highlighted in Toowoomba in July 2006, when a local referendum overwhelmingly rejected a proposal to augment the city’s supply

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through the indirect reuse of waste water for potable (drinking) water (Brown 2005; Sydney Morning Herald 2006). Notwithstanding that recycling sewage is a common practice elsewhere, including Singapore and Washington DC, this decision jeopardizes the uptake of such technology in other parts of Australia. Most river and aquifer systems providing water for Australia’s major cities are highly stressed and degraded, affecting ecosystem health as well as agricultural, industrial, and tourist water users. Policy responses, and senses of urgency, have varied between cities. For example, Dr John Marsden is quoted (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage 2005, 86) as strongly critical of the tardy response in Sydney: ‘Perth knows that it is on a cliff. In fact, it is on the cliff face…and it is scaling it…whereas in Sydney…it has been wandering around in a fog denying that there might be a cliff anywhere.’ In Australia, 75 per cent of harvested water is used by irrigators and there is increasing conflict between urban and rural consumers. In many rural areas – predominantly Aboriginal communities –the quality of drinking water does not meet minimal World Health Organization standards. During most of the twentieth century, urban Australians assumed unlimited access to cheap and plentiful water (Mercer and Lloyd 1986). Over the last two decades this understanding has been seriously challenged, with increasing recognition of the limits to resource availability and importance of ecosystem health. A recent Business Council of Australia (2006) report pointed out that water costs Australians around half of what water costs in Europe. Growing evidence of climate change has been particularly significant, encouraging changes to urban water practices. To preserve the natural environment, citizens and institutions are recognizing that they must radically alter perceptions, management and use of water for sustainable consumption. Historically, large infrastructure developments – dams, reticulated supply and sewerage systems, and waste-water treatment plants – have contributed to vast improvements in life expectancy, health and safety, and living standards. Limits to urban water supplies have been addressed by big infrastructure projects, while ecological impacts were ignored or downplayed (Johnson and Rix 1993). However, opposition to new dam construction has been gathering pace around the world (WCD 2000) along with calls to find alternative solutions to water supply problems, which increasingly involve moving from outmoded linear systems to circular systems of conservation and reuse (Pausacker and Andrews 1981). New approaches recognize that large centralized water supply and disposal systems have had extensive detrimental effects on the environment and have allowed wasteful consumption based on the belief that water resources are limitless. Victoria’s Draft Central Region Sustainable Water Strategy (DSE 2006) supports policies involving a water conservation target of 25 per cent by 2015 rather than supplying more water from new or expanded reservoirs. This is not a universally held view. For example, controversially, the Queensland Government has committed to a program of new dam construction for its rapidly growing south-eastern region. Desalination is on the agenda, including in Sydney and Perth, as a supply-side ‘solution’, even though US experiences provide ample evidence that this option is deeply flawed.

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Continued concentration on supply-side solutions fails to address either environmental consequences or entrenched excessive consumption. Building dams, reservoirs and other water storage facilities, and diverting or extracting water from natural systems, results in altered flow regimes and habitat destruction, as well as diminished water quality in the remaining flows. Disposal of urban sewage and stormwater also affects water quality through altered flow regimes, increased nutrient loads, salinity, toxicants, and temperature pollution. In Victoria, the condition of one-third of the State’s rivers and two-thirds of its estuaries are classified as ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’ due to water extraction and disposal (DSE 2004). Moreover, the use of large-scale urban water supply and waste-water removal systems has encouraged service expectations and patterns of use which assume limitless sources. In 2001, the average Australian resident used 315 L of high quality drinking water per day in the home (ABS 2004), 30 per cent higher than the average in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries. Less than 28 per cent of this water was used for human health and hygiene (ABS 2004), and less than 1 per cent was used to drink! When a householder turns on a tap, the water is always there, and hasn’t ever cost much. Once used, it disappears down a hole. Most citizens never see or experience the impacts of water consumption. Can we realistically expect them to meaningfully engage with its management as a scarce resource? Clearly, significant changes and new approaches are required to reduce the impacts of water consumption. An emerging ‘new paradigm’ has seen governments and the water industry acknowledge real limits to this essential resource and attempts to reconsider our consumption values have had some success. Sustainable Urban Water Systems There have been two pivotal moments in the evolution of sustainability thinking. Our Common Future, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987) report, gave the first wide exposure to the concept of sustainable development. Subsequently, Local Agenda 21, a product of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit (United Nations 1992), began making the principles of sustainable development operational on a world scale. Girardet (2004:6) usefully modified the Brundtland Commission definition of sustainable development for cities: ‘A “sustainable city” enables all its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being, without degrading the natural world or the lives of other people, now or in the future.’ In applying sustainability principles to urban water use, the State of Victoria (DSE 2004) has aimed to: provide reliable and safe urban water and sewerage services into the future; maintain healthy rivers, aquifers, floodplains, estuaries, and catchments; and engage communities to make considered choices about consumption to conserve water. To seriously address current consumption behaviour and move to more sustainable practices, Cullen (2002) has argued that Australians need to reflect on water use and to develop new ethics for its use, as well as practices respecting and valuing water. Sustainable water systems will minimize consumption, provide fair and just access, draw only within sustainable yields (leaving sufficient environmental flows to maintain ecosystem health), maintain and improve ecosystem health, pay

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for mitigation and restoration measures, engage all citizens in water education programs to minimize negative impacts of water consumption on ecosystems and, most significantly, maintain all of the above for future generations. Such actions are essential features of the emerging Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) paradigm. In a wide-ranging review and critique of IUWM as currently practised in Australia, Mitchell (2006, 589–90) describes IUWM as a management philosophy that ‘takes a comprehensive approach to urban water services, viewing water supply, drainage and sanitation as components of an integrated physical system, and recognizes that the physical system sits within an organizational framework and a broader natural landscape’, enunciating five core principles of IUWM: 1. Consider all parts of the water cycle, natural and constructed, surface and subsurface, recognizing them as an integrated system. 2. Consider all requirements for water, both anthropogenic and ecological. 3. Consider the local context, accounting for environmental, social, cultural, and economic perspectives. 4. Include all stakeholders in planning and decision-making processes. 5. Strive for sustainability, aiming to balance environmental, social and economic needs in the short, medium and long term. We highlight Principle 4 as particularly relevant to our arguments advanced here. In the past, large infrastructure developments were planned and developed ‘top down’, mainly by engineers. Consumers were not active participants in the decision making, resulting in a focus on supply-side asset management rather than demand management. Neither suppliers nor consumers have understood how much water individuals consumed, and to what end. Under the new paradigm, ideally consumers gain accurate information and timely feedback about consumption patterns and can monitor and take more responsibility for their individual behaviour in terms of its cumulative consequences. Reducing Water Use in the Home Given cheap, reliable supplies of high quality water to Australian homes, consumption can be reduced through behavioural and technological changes. Changing behaviour related to showers, washing machines and toilets, which typically account for over 75 per cent of indoor use, can easily result in significant overall reductions in water use. Table 9.1 summarizes some common initiatives, highlighting the role of end uses and pointing to areas of potential greatest saving. For example, use of quality potable water for domestic irrigation is extensive yet makes little sense. Alternative Urban Water Supplies Most urban areas face a shortage of high quality potable water, rather than water shortages per se. As the technical ability to treat water improves, options for both

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Table 9.1

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Reducing water use in the home

Domestic End-Use: % of Total Consumption (Roberts 2005, 4)

Consumption Change Initiatives

Garden irrigation, including filling swimming pools and car washing: 25%

Substitute exotic plant species requiring large amounts of water with more suitable plants, such as indigenous species. Mulch garden beds to increase water absorption and retention.

Install targeted irrigation systems (such as drip irrigation) and water garden at cool times of the day. Shower: 22%

Biggest indoor user of water in most households, so simply shortening shower time will save significant amounts of water. Install water-efficient showerheads (can halve shower water consumption).

Clothes washing machine: 19%

Water-efficient clothes washers use less than half the amount used by some inefficient machines. Only wash full loads.

Toilet: 13%

Old toilet cisterns use up to 12 L per flush while modern, dualflush models use around 3/4.5 L for half/full flush.

Taps: 12%

Aerators or flow restrictors on kitchen, bathroom and laundry taps can reduce water use from 18 L to 2 L per minute.

Leaks and other: 11%

Leaks can often be easily fixed but, meanwhile, waste water.

decentralized and centralized treatment of water for reuse become more feasible. Most urban stormwater and waste water is disposed to rivers and oceans. While not fit to drink, such water can be used for non-drinking purposes, particularly when treated (City of Sydney 2004). Urban water managers must give due consideration to hierarchies of multiple supplies and assess the suitability of each supply for meeting the particular water service required. Table 9.2 summarizes issues associated with alternative water supply options. The use of multiple supplies of water to meet different needs can greatly reduce domestic reliance on existing reticulated potable water systems. However, matching a range of water supplies – with varying levels of quality, quantity and temporal availability – to a range of demands challenges individual householders.

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Table 9.2

Issues associated with alternative urban water supplies

Water Supply

Characteristics and Issues

Rainwater Tanks

Urban rainwater tanks commonly supply particular domestic demands (for example garden) combined with reticulated supplies. Temporal variation in rainfall means matching supply with demand. Tank can become contaminated, causing water quality concerns. Requires householders to manage collection, storage and supply.

Direct Re-Use of Grey Water

Most commonly diverted to garden in dry periods. Some divert shower water for reuse in toilet flushing. Provides a consistent supply, as an ongoing by-product of showering and clothes washing. Highly variable quality, from almost drinkable to very polluted, presenting health concerns. Demands significant behaviour change, requiring householder awareness of impacts of substances washed down the plug hole.

On-Site Recycling of Collection, treatment and reuse uncommon due to reticulated sewerage systems. Waste Water Technology exists to treat water to varying levels of quality, even up to potable standard, but tends to be costly and energy intensive.

Regional ‘Third Pipe’

Use of energy intensive water treatment is questionable from holistic sustainability perspective. Regional waste water treatment plants feeding reticulated treated water supply systems are increasingly considered. Require substantial piping infrastructure, thus limiting feasibility to new developments. Reticulated treated waste water, usually suitable for garden irrigation and laundry use, but existing technology to treat to potable standard.

Stormwater Harvesting Desalination

Reticulated treated waste water systems require householders to deal with two supplies of two levels of water quality suitable for distinct end uses. Accidental misuse could have health consequences. Harvesting urban surface water runoff is uncommon at household level but increasingly used for urban irrigation. Technology exists to convert sea water to potable water but process is costly and 3–5 times more energy-intensive than reclaiming water (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage, 2005, 95). Energy intensity greatly diminishes holistic environmental benefits.

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Figure 9.1

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Hierarchy of supply for the Aurora estate

For instance, it is controversial whether the quality of shower water is appropriate for flushing toilets. Also poor supply–demand matches develop, such as if using a small rainwater tank for suburban garden irrigation, periods when water is available (when it rains) do not match well with periods water is required, through dry summer months. In this case, substantial storage is required for a successful supply–demand match. Case Study, the Aurora Estate New urban developments are beginning to integrate multiple water supplies into planning and design. The planned Aurora residential development of 8500 dwellings on Melbourne’s northern fringe is incorporating three supplies to meet domestic demands: mains potable water, local area centralized recycled waste water and household rainwater tanks (see Figure 9.1 and McLean 2004). The highest quality (potable mains) water will service uses demanding the highest level of quality and security of supply. In addition, each dwelling will be connected to a reticulated supply of treated waste water for use in washing machines and for garden watering.

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An optional rainwater tank will supply hot water to the house – the hot water system diminishing risks of bacterial contamination (Coombes et al. 2000). Along with demand-reduction measures Aurora residents are expected to use 72 per cent less mains water than other suburban Melbourne households (McLean 2004). Urban Water Report Card At both federal and State levels, there has been an intensive focus on water management issues in recent years, with significant inquiries and policy documents released, including: the Sustainable Cities inquiry (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage 2005); the Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative (COAG 2004); the Inquiry into Sustainable Communities (Environment and Natural Resources Committee 2005); and Securing Our Water Future Together (DSE 2004). Many different programs to improve water management and use focusing on domestic use of water have been established. Governments, the water industry, non-profit organizations and the private sector have implemented initiatives, many with government financial assistance. These can be categorized according to the method used to effect change: social (voluntary), regulatory (compulsory), and economic. Intense public focus on water resources has resulted in initiatives to reduce domestic consumption. Table 9.3 highlights a representative selection of advertising campaigns, education programs, industry and community award schemes, demonstration projects, visitor centres, household audit and retrofit programs, and rebate schemes. For example, the Sustainable Schools Program presents an innovative, comprehensive approach to sustainability education in schools. However, many well-designed experiments compete for a place in the curriculum rather than complementing each other. Larri’s (2004) evaluation of the Sustainable Schools Program highlights the need for collaboration between government agencies, NGOs and other actors developing and delivering such innovations. While abundant social initiatives encourage householders to reduce water consumption, few regulatory and economic initiatives exist. The Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards scheme recently introduced by the Australian Government is long overdue, but it does not go far enough, having mandatory performance standards for toilets only. Mandatory standards should apply to showers and clothes washing machines, which use most domestic water. Victoria’s permanent water-use rules demonstrate one State government’s willingness to tell consumers to use water in measured ways but such restrictions are relatively minor and have much scope for extension. How successful are such schemes in reducing overall domestic water consumption? Have we become more responsible domestic water users? The most recent Water Account (2000–01) from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2004) shows a 12 per cent increase in average domestic water consumption from 1996–97, extending an historical pattern of increasing consumption. However, studies since then show a trend of reduced water consumption in most major cities. Adelaide has reduced its domestic consumption by 10 per cent and Perth by 12 per cent (ABS

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Table 9.3

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A selection of existing programs for better urban water management

Social initiatives Sustainable Schools Program (Larri 2004)

Developed by two Melbourne-based NGOs, works with schools to improve their sustainability performance, while creating a complementary integrated sustainability curriculum for the school.

Water Smart Bills (Environment and Natural Resources Committee 2005)

Water agency, Yarra Valley Water, introduced benchmarking information on bills to allow customers to compare their water consumption with a water-efficient household of the same size.

Regulatory initiatives Five Star Standard (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2006)

All new homes built in Victoria must meet the ‘Five Star Standard’. This means including a rainwater tank, solar hot water service, or connecting to a dual-pipe reticulated supply, and installing lowflow shower heads and dual-flush toilets.

Permanent Water Restrictions

The Victorian Government has introduced permanent water saving rules, placing certain restrictions on water use.

The Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards scheme introduces Labelling and consistent Australia-wide mandatory labelling of products and Performance Standards (Australian some minimum performance standards. Government 2005) Economic Initiatives Water Pricing – Melbourne (Yarra Valley Water 2005)

Rising block tariffs for water pricing, to reward water conservation. Initial charges of $A0.78 per kL for first 40 kL; $A0.92 per kL for next 40 kL; and, over that, $A1.36 per kL.

2005). Melbourne has been very successful, with recent water consumption 22 per cent less than the 1990s average (DSE 2006). Clearly a combination of initiatives, such as those in Table 9.3, and the thought provoking effects of prolonged periods of drought, are having significant results. However, such reductions must be maintained and improved to achieve sustainable levels of urban water consumption. Fundamental to this challenge is understanding the ways people consume water (better measurement and analysis of water use) and how existing initiatives affect behaviour (relative successes of different approaches, interactivity of different approaches, connection between initiatives and specific reductions). Such insights need to be applied continuously to the development of policy and programs to best target future efforts to achieve sustainable water consumption.

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Achieving Social Change The know-how and technology available to save water and improve water quality are far in advance of common practice. There is a wide gap between people’s concerns for the environment and their practices. Studies (Environment and Natural Resources Committee 2005) show that concern for the environment does not necessarily translate into significant action. Effective policy responses will build on understandings of drivers of, and barriers to, change. The Victorian Inquiry into Sustainable Communities (Environment and Natural Resources Committee 2005, 101–8) identified significant barriers to changing water users’ practices: • •

•

• • • •

•

Cost: people resist paying a higher price to buy ‘green’ products. Underpriced resources: the cost of water is very low and potential economic savings from better resource use rarely financially justify time and effort invested in making the savings. Disassociation from the environment: consumers of water in urban environments are physically and mentally disconnected from the natural environment, making it difficult to understand the consequences of their resource use and the necessity for behaviour change. Disassociation from others: many who do take action become disheartened and discouraged when the government or their peers don’t take action. Information overload: environmental messages compete with other messages in the marketplace. Entrenched attitudes and behaviour: people often do not question habits. Policy and regulation: existing policy makes water-saving initiatives difficult (e.g. grey-water reuse), resulting in mixed messages, with information campaigns encouraging water saving while some regulations discourage it. Cultural barriers: such as attachment to European-style gardens, requiring irrigation.

Often the ‘bell curve of social change’ is invoked to explain the time dependency of social change programs. The curve groups people according to their likelihood of taking up a social change initiative: from innovators, through the bulk of people, to laggards. In reality, many attempts at social change result in part-adoption only, and it is not certain that, once implemented, a social change initiative will permeate through all of the target population. Applied to water conservation behaviour, such a curve would spread practices from a few excessive users, through the majority in the middle, to leading water conservers. Indeed the results of many well-conceived, voluntary programs suggest that they are most successful in helping to empower the actions of ‘innovators’ and ‘early adopters’. Such programs raise awareness within the majority, creating vital potential for change, but this does not necessarily translate to shifts in their behaviour. Instead, such programs tend to lead innovators and early adopters to greater achievements through access to better information, resources and/or other incentives yet leave the majority behind. More desirable changes will rely on a substantial shift of the majority group to reduce water consumption.

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The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (in Environment and Natural Resources Committee 2005) suggests social tools alone are unlikely to achieve change and governments need to focus more on developing economic and regulatory approaches to sustainability rather than rely so heavily on acceptable, but less certain, social instruments (Dalhuisen et al. 2003). While each policy instrument that governments use to influence sustainable behaviour has strengths and weaknesses, none is sufficiently flexible to address all sustainability issues in all contexts. Regulatory, economic and social measures work together holistically to influence behaviour, whereas exclusive reliance on one or a few measures yields limited results. Conclusion New approaches to managing our urban water systems, and significant changes in domestic water use behaviour, are required to secure supplies and protect the environment now and into the future. Unsustainable water use continues to be wasteful and environmentally irresponsible. As such, systems used for allocating, financing and pricing, as well as arrangements for managing demand and supply infrastructure, are failing to resolve competing needs (Barton Group 2005). Maintaining and improving water reduction will require understanding better how households use water and how specific initiatives result in change. There has been a major focus on education, awareness and voluntary engagement programs, initiatives crucial to placing change on the community agenda and establishing common visions. However, substantial and lasting change requires brave and bold policies (Martin and Verbeek 2006). When the local referendum in Toowoomba rejected the well-tried technology of indirect potable reuse of waste water, a debate (ABC Radio National 2006) arose around two crucial questions: Was the educational campaign too hurried and not well enough resourced? Should the government have avoided a referendum and mandated introduction of the technology? Governments and water utilities need a comprehensive package of policy measures designed to optimize the multiplier effects between initiatives, including the well-considered use of regulation and economic measures alongside social change methods. The political opportunity exists to implement enforceable minimum performance standards (particularly for toilets, showerheads and washing machines), extensions to permanent water-saving rules and new pricing policies. Such measures are necessary to change entrenched cultural habits and create a substantial shift in most of the population to more sustainable domestic water consumption. References ABC Radio National (2006), ‘Toowoomba’s Vote on Sewage’, The National Interest [program], 30 July. ABS (2004), Water Account Australia 2000–2001 (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics).

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ABS (2005), Household Water Use and Effects of the Drought Australian Bureau of Statistics [website], , accessed 17 January 2006. Age (2006), ‘Crown, Chadstone on secret “top 200” list of water users’, 10 October. Auditor-General of New South Wales (2005), Planning for Sydney’s Water Needs: Performance Audit (Sydney: Audit Office). Australian Government (2005), ‘About the WELS Scheme’, Australian Government, [website], , accessed 28 January 2006. Barton Group (2005), ‘Australian Water Industry Roadmap’, Barton Group [website], , accessed 10 August 2005. Brown, R. (2005), ‘Impediments to Integrated Urban Stormwater Management: The Need for Institutional Reform’, Environmental Management 36:3, 455–68. Business Council of Australia (2006), Water Under Pressure: Australia’s Man-Made Water Scarcity and How to Fix It (Melbourne: Business Council of Australia). City of Sydney (2004), State of the Environment Report 2003–04 (Sydney: City of Sydney). COAG (2004), Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Water Initiative, Council of Australian Governments [website], , accessed 17 January 2006. Coombes, P., Argue, J. and Kuczera, G. (2000), Figtree Place: A Case Study in Water Sensitive Urban Development, Water Sensitive Urban Design in Sydney [website], Water Sensitive Urban Design and Sustainable Water Management Literature [webpage], , accessed 17 January 2006. Cullen, P. (2002), ‘Living With Water – Sustainability in a Dry Land’, [Paper] Adelaide Festival of Arts Getting It Right Symposium, 11–12 March. Dalhuisen, J., Rodenburg, C., de Groot, H. and Nijkamp, P. (2003), ‘Sustainable Water Management Policy: Lessons from Amsterdam’, European Planning Studies 11:3, 263–81. DSE (2004), Securing Our Water Future Together (Melbourne: Department of Sustainability and Environment). DSE (2006), Draft Central Region Sustainable Water Strategy (Melbourne: Department of Sustainability and Environment). Environment and Natural Resources Committee (2005), Inquiry into Sustainable Communities (Melbourne: Parliament of Victoria). Girardet, H. (2004), Cities, People, Planet: Liveable Cities for a Sustainable World, (Chichester: Wiley-Academy). Heathcote, R. (2005), ‘Review of: L.C. Botterill and D.A.Wilhite (eds), From Disaster Response to Risk Management: Australia’s National Drought Policy’, Geographical Research 43:4, 439–41. House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Heritage (2005), Sustainable Cities (Canberra: Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia).

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Johnson, M. and Rix, S. (eds) (1993), Water in Australia: Managing Economic, Environmental and Community Reform (Sydney: Pluto Press). Larri, L. (2004), Evaluation: Victorian Sustainable Schools Project (Melbourne: Department of Education and Training). Martin, P. and Verbeek, M. (2006), Sustainability Strategy (Annandale: Federation Press). McLean, J. (2004), Aurora – Delivering a Sustainable Urban Water System for a New Suburb, Coomes Consulting Group, Water Sensitive Urban Design in Sydney [website], Water Sensitive Urban Design and Sustainable Water Management Literature [webpage], , accessed 17 January 2006. Mercer, D. and Lloyd, D. (1986), ‘Planning Melbourne’s Water Supply’, Australian Geographer 17:1, 51–64. Mitchell, V. (2006), ‘Applying Integrated Urban Water Management Concepts: A Review of Australian Experience’, Environmental Management 37:5, 589–605. Pausacker, I. and Andrews, J. (1981), Living Better with Less (Ringwood: Penguin Books). Postel, S. (2005), ‘From the Headwaters to the Sea: The Critical Need to Protect Freshwater Ecosystems’, Environment 47:10, 8–21. Roberts, P. (2005), 2004 Residential End Use Management Study, Yarra Valley Water [website], , accessed 18 January 2006. Sydney Morning Herald (2006), ‘Toowoomba Says No To Recycled Water’, 30 July. United Nations (1992), Agenda 21, United Nations [website], , accessed 15 October 2005. WCD (2000), Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-Making [Report of the World Commission on Dams] (London: Earthscan). WCED (1987), Our Common Future [Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development] (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Yarra Valley Water (2005), Pricing Handbook 2005–06 [Final document] (Melbourne: Yarra Valley Water).

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Chapter 10

Integrated Waste Management and Zero Waste Glenn Eales and Nutana Donaldson

Waste management will be one of the greatest sustainability challenges for the global economy and environment in the twenty-first century. Due to the availability of land, Australians have continued to rely on landfill as a waste disposal method while many other countries have been forced to implement other waste management strategies. Meanwhile, Australia has become established as a high producer of waste, second only to the USA at the turn of the century (OECD 2001), and still amongst the top five waste producing OECD nations five years later (OECD 2005; Productivity Commission 2006). Landfills have grown at an unprecedented rate with pressure on suitable land increasing. Although easy and convenient, the landfill method of waste disposal is not sustainable. All governments have been forced to consider sustainable waste management practices and systems to protect both environmental and human health. Actions to minimize and avoid waste – by encouraging the reduction, recovery, reuse, and recycling of waste – are essential to sustainable waste management. As a result, Australian governments have identified a need for ‘zero waste’, moving away from landfills towards integrated waste management to encourage materials efficiency and the recovery of as wide a range of resources as possible. This chapter highlights global issues and management solutions before discussing Australia’s waste management and policy options. Problems with landfills are highlighted, practices constituting the waste hierarchy are analysed, policy options related to integrated waste management are reviewed and, finally, issues associated with litter and recycling are examined. As with water management (see Chapter 9), the area of waste management highlights the importance of sustainable household practices, which are critical for collective waste management systems to succeed. Global Waste Management Profiles Sweden, Japan and India demonstrate contemporary urban solutions to waste management. Sweden is an international leader in sustainable waste management. More than 90 per cent of domestic waste was recycled and less than 10 per cent of industrial (excluding mining) waste is disposed of as landfill (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2005). Swedish waste policies increase producer responsibility

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and eco-efficiency, including strong regulation of landfill operations and waste transport, a landfill tax, and prohibition on directing combustible or organic waste to landfills (Schönning 2006). The producer responsibility principle supports companies collecting waste from production and recycling in the best available ways. Eco-efficiency refers to an environment-oriented policy to prevent and reduce the negative impact products have on the environment and on human health throughout their entire life cycle (see Chapter 5). Sweden’s policies support more recycling and energy extraction of products and materials in order to decrease landfills. Waste materials are separated at source, where recyclable and combustible materials are recovered. At recycling stations, items are separated into four main forms of treatment: recovery of reusable and recyclable materials, combustion of bulk materials, special processes for hazardous materials and disposal of non-combustible bulk materials in landfills. The combustible materials are incinerated under controlled conditions, to reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions, then recovered and converted into energy for heating and electricity. The residual ash is sent for disposal at a landfill along with non-combustible bulk materials. Some areas compost organic waste on a large scale and recover gases produced from decomposition to provide energy for heating (Sahlin et al. 2002; Schönning 2006; Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2005). In Japan, domestic waste amounts to over 51 million tonnes per year, an average of 1.114 kg per person per day, which compares favourably with the waste generation of the average Australian, over 2 kg per day (Fuller et al. 2000). As with the Swedish model, domestic waste is separated into general waste and recyclable waste, collected and treated separately. Incineration occurs under controlled conditions to reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions and most heat generated is recycled into usable energy. The waste is reduced to ash and disposed of as landfill. However, waste generation levels are increasing along with a scarcity of suitable landfill sites. Fuller et al. (2000) estimated that, if current domestic generation patterns continued, Japan’s landfill sites would only last another several years. Therefore, Japanese waste management systems focus on recovering various materials for recycling. Kerbside recycling collection recovers recyclable ferrous metals from bulky waste items and electrical appliances, such as television sets, refrigerators, washing machines and computers. Manufacturing companies are urged to develop reusable or recyclable goods and there is a large market for recyclable plastic products (Fuller et al. 2000). In India, rapid and haphazard urban growth has resulted in a scarcity of suitable waste disposal sites. Urban Indians generate over 30 million tonnes of solid waste each year, 0.1–0.6 kg per person per day, 30–75 per cent organic waste and up to 20 per cent recyclable (van Beukering 1999). Uncontrolled waste dumping on urban outskirts, and overflowing landfills, are impossible to manage and pose serious implications for groundwater pollution while contributing to global warming. As the more developed countries eliminate outdated forms of incineration, which involve high costs associated with higher emission control standards, obsolete technologies are dumped on India and other developing countries. Also energy recovery from such incineration is often not successful because the composition of the waste is deficient in fuel for profitable energy consumption. India illustrates global challenges for

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waste generation and management: increasing levels of population and consumption; growing land shortages; and high economic, environmental and health costs. The Landfill Challenge Australians are generating an average of 800–1000 kg waste per annum (Beeton et al. 2006) sourced from natural resources: oil and gas to make plastics, trees and wood chips for paper, and minerals and ores to make metals. While some resources are renewable, for instance most contributing to foods and textiles, many are not. Thousands of tons of coal, gas and oil are fuel for making and transporting products that eventually become wastes. Indirect costs of waste production are often overlooked yet impact heavily on global sustainability issues, such as the generation of greenhouse gases. The energy used to mine, collect, manufacture and transport materials is a large contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, matched by contributions of carbon dioxide and methane generated from rotting organic matter in poorly managed landfills. Spreading urban populations demand that landfills are located distant from cities. This increases fuel costs and time moving waste, further contributing to greenhouse gas and resource use. High tech solutions such as incineration are imperfect although future technological advances might improve emissions. In Australia, most urban household waste is placed in domestic bins, collected by trucks and transferred to landfills for disposal. Waste was originally buried in large holes, usually old quarries, referred to as ‘dumps’ or ‘tips’. Today, at great cost, landfill areas are sited and designed so that buried waste is completely contained to minimize environmental impacts. Once waste is deposited, it is compacted, then covered with layers of soil and clay. One by one, filled cells (sections) are capped and sealed with clay, then covered with topsoil to grow grass and finally, the site is closed. Waste materials breaking down inside a landfill cell produce ‘leachate’ (rainwater and other contaminated liquid run-off) that is dangerous if it soaks through the soil, enters groundwater and travels into waterways, carrying contaminants and pollutants. Landfill cells are lined with clay and geotextile fabric to prevent leachate soaking into groundwater reserves. A network of pipes is constructed at the bottom of the cell to remove leachate for treatment or to continuously recirculate it through the landfill (‘polishing’). Australian landfills are the second highest contributor of methane, the greenhouse gas so harmful to our atmosphere. Therefore, a further network of pipes is constructed inside landfill cells to remove methane gas to be burnt off, to reduce its potency, or to be collected and used as a power source for on-site facilities. Some larger landfills make so much methane gas that it is collected and fed into the electricity grid to power local homes. Urban Australians seek out pre-packaged, pre-prepared and single-use items but disposing of the waste produced by our modern convenience-oriented lifestyles implies more and larger landfill sites. Increased waste implies greater demand for virgin natural resources for substitutes as well as more landfills. Uncontrolled disposal of waste is unsightly, unhygienic and potentially disastrous

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to the environment. Conveniently locating environmentally responsible landfill facilities is expensive. Residents object to landfill sites established close to their homes due to concerns about litter, pollution, odour and negative impacts on home values. Authorities strictly regulate the formation and management of landfill sites to protect public health and local environments. Therefore Australian governments are moving away from landfill as the central waste management method towards zero waste and integrated waste management. A zero waste approach to sustainable waste management both slows down the rate at which we use resources and focuses on using resources in cleaner ways (Government of South Australia 2006; Department of Environment Western Australia 2004; Environment Victoria 2003). ‘Eco-efficiency’ means producing more goods and services with less energy and fewer natural resources, resulting in less waste and pollution. In a ‘materials efficient world’ or ‘closed loop economy’, waste creation is minimized by clever product and package design and delivery, and through production processes that exclude wastes (see Chapter 5). Discarded materials are recovered for their inherent value and reused, recycled and reprocessed to optimize their qualities. The Waste Hierarchy Minimizing waste involves analysis of waste in the home, school and office. Integrated waste management reduces waste at source. Waste avoidance means buying a minimum of products and packaging and buying goods that can be recovered to use again. Waste materials that cannot be recovered for reuse and recycling must be disposed of using environmentally sound landfills above current environmental protection licensing standards (Productivity Commission 2006; Environmental Protection Act Qld 1994 2000; Government of South Australia 2006). The ‘waste hierarchy’ prioritizes practices from the most to the least preferred. It is based on the following criteria: avoid, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover energy, and dispose. At the heart of integrated waste management, the waste hierarchy illustrates a behavioural, attitudinal and action-oriented process designed to minimize the total volume of waste going to landfill. Reduce, reuse and recycle are also referred to as the ‘3 Rs’. Discussion of these household strategies demonstrates the complexities of informing householders about waste generation and management. Householders need to think about each daily purchase: Is it necessary? What quantity is ideal? Can it be reused or recycled to contribute to sustainable and integrated waste management nationally? The first and second preferred options are to avoid purchases and to reduce consumption – buying only what is necessary, considering hiring instead, buying more durable items, and so on. Manufacturers package goods to protect them in transport and storage and to protect consumers’ health. However, packaging can be excessive. Consumers should choose lightly packaged items. With small, singleserve items the ratio of packaging to product is usually high compared with bulk purchases. However, buying in bulk can cause wastage depending on the use-by date and household needs.

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The third option is to reuse or pass on for reuse – ‘one person’s trash is another person’s treasure’ – through the likes of a second-hand dealer. Items can be repaired or combined with another material to make new, functional products. Waste paper can be reused as scrap paper. Old clothing and curtains can be donated to charity or used as rags. Old toothbrushes can be reused as cleaning tools. Egg cartons can become seedling trays. The fourth option is recycling: the process of recovering, reprocessing and using reprocessed resources to make new materials or products. Thus manufacturers use fewer natural resources and less energy. Recycling schemes are provided through local council waste collection and treatment. Individuals have two tasks in recycling processes. First, they need to present materials for recycling by putting only the right plastics, glass, paper, steel and aluminium items in the recycling bin and, when away from home, investigate what recycling services are available and materials accepted. (The complexities of these processes are discussed further below.) Second, individuals need to purchase new products made from recycled materials. Householders can support recycling in their backyards too, by establishing and managing a compost bin or worm farm. Composting replicates the recycling of materials that occurs in natural systems, i.e. ‘nutrient cycling’, which maintains soil nutrients and plant communities and sustains ecosystems. In nature, matter is neither destroyed nor created, it simply changes form; recycling resources is very important in natural systems. The mass of organic waste constitutes almost half of the average domestic household’s waste stream: typically, fruit and vegetable scraps make up about one-third and the rest is from the garden. Deposited in a landfill, organic material breaks down underground to release methane and carbon dioxide, major contributors to the greenhouse effect. Organic waste is easily diverted from landfill by using compost or worm farms in homes, schools, work places and on large commercial sites. The process is essentially the same, but large-scale systems demand faster composting times for economic sustainability, shredding all materials as finely as possible before starting the composting. Compost is beneficial for creating kitchen gardens and other domestic vegetation. The final option of ‘last resort’ is disposal. Often the only choice to councils without landfill sites in their municipality is to transport waste to a landfill site elsewhere, which will involve the labour and material costs of building a facility where waste is off-loaded into pits, transferred to large trucks and transported to landfill. This issue raises broader questions such as population policies. Most manufactured materials persist in the environment for a very long time. Landfills take up space that is important for natural habitat (see Chapter 18). As outlined above, by-products from the decomposition of our waste include leachate and methane gas, which endanger the wider environment and require management, especially to protect catchments and the atmosphere. Integrated waste management is a holistic policy response to the social and environmental implications of waste.

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Integrated Waste Management Guided by the waste hierarchy, Australian governments, businesses, organizations and individuals are developing strategies and programs for integrated, sustainable waste management. See Table 10.1 for a representative range of approaches and examples. Aside from these efforts, many community-based programs focus on litter and recycling. Both issues indicate the significance of community education. Waste management cannot succeed without well-informed residents and sustainable household practices. Waste-education facilitators can introduce community members to the mysteries of recycling and show them how to set up and manage compost bins and worm farms. For instance, Queensland’s Logan City Council Watch Out Waste community education program offers: •

• •

Community presentations explaining how recycling is collected and processed, and teaching residents waste minimization skills such as establishing a worm farm. Tours and open days of the local waste management facility. Special events, such as the annual Waste Awareness Week, which raises awareness of waste minimization at various venues throughout Logan.

Table 10.1

Waste management principles and strategies

Waste Management Principles and Strategies

Practical Examples

Polluter Pays: A principle stating that those who cause industrial pollution should offset its effects by compensating for the damage incurred, or by taking precautionary measures to avoid creating pollution (Evolution Markets 2005).

A common example of polluter pays for householders is a landfill tip fee, where the waste generator is directly responsible for the cost of material disposal and treatment, rather than the entire community bearing landfill management costs through municipal rates or levies. The States have adopted polluter pays approaches to business, controlling pollution through economic incentives: the South Australian Marine Environment Protection Act 1990 established effluent fees for discharges to marine and coastal waters, and Victoria has a load-based licensing system for effluent discharges. In these cases, instead of a fixed licence fee, payments are linked to distinct economic activities, kinds of pollutants discharged, levels of discharge and the sensitivity of receiving environment (Australian Government 2006).

User Pays Principle: Cost sharing principle, whereby the end user of a product or resource is charged for the full supply cost (Mallee Catchment Management Authority 2004).

Mosman Council (NSW) offers residents a choice of bin sizes for waste collection based on the principle of user pays; less waste means a smaller bin and a lower waste charge (Mosman Municipal Council 2006)

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Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): a policy whereby producers accept significant direct or financial responsibility for treating or disposing of products. The distinguishing features of EPR policies are to shift responsibility upstream to the producer and to provide incentives for producers to consider environmental implications when designing products (OECD 2006).

The National Packaging Covenant is a self-regulatory agreement between industries in the packaging chain and all spheres of government, a leading instrument for managing packaging waste in Australia. The covenant aims to minimize environmental impacts of consumer packaging waste throughout the entire life cycle of the packaging, closing the recycling loop and developing economically viable and sustainable recycling collection systems (Australian Government 2006).

Waste Stream Analysis: determination of the quantity and qualities of individual components present in a waste stream (Standards Australia 1998).

Information on waste-stream analysis, including data from around Australia, can be found at the Australian Waste Database (CSIRO and Department of Environment and Heritage 2006).

Resource Recovery: recovery and reuse of materials or energy.

Local government kerbside recycling systems are familiar examples of resource recovery.

Resource Exchange: works on the principle that ‘one man’s trash is another man’s treasure’. Resource exchange facilitates business-tobusiness exchange of waste or unwanted materials (Global Presence 2000).

The Waste Exchange Database, developed by the Victorian Environment Protection Authority and the Victorian Waste Management Association, brings waste generators and potential waste receivers together to identify reuse and recycling options for wastes otherwise disposed of to landfill. One can browse the database for wastes that are wanted or available for reuse or recycling or simply register on-line to place a free advertisement (EPA 2006).

Plastic Bag Reduction Campaigns: designed to encourage reduction in use of plastic bags, often through providing alternatives.

The Bribie Island Chamber of Commerce ‘Bribie Bag’ and associated education and awareness campaign was initiated by the local Chamber of Commerce to help the island become a plastic bag free zone and reduce the impact of littered bags on the precious marine environment and national park. The project targets all island businesses, residents and visitors through the local media, town and retail signage, and an annual festival (Keep Australia Beautiful Queensland 2006).

Litter Litter is an issue for every city in Australia. Litter includes: cigarette butts, plastic straws, bottle caps and rings, fast and snack food packaging, broken glass and

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plastic, large furniture, electrical appliances, tyres and car bodies. Litter is ‘rubbish on the run’ – refuse escaped from overfull or open bins, rubbish left in gutters or on the ground in public spaces, or materials found floating in waterways. New sources of litter emerge with lifestyle changes, such as: increasing sales of takeaway food, increased production of advertising (‘junk mail’) and automatic teller machine slips. Although it might seem trivial and superficial compared with business and household waste, a discussion of litter clearly illustrates the environmental impacts and community-wide responsibilities for waste. Many manufactured materials, such as plastics, do not assimilate into the environment well and persist for a very long time. Litter affects the immediate environment or travels to impact on surrounding catchments and flora and fauna. Addressing litter has become an environmental priority because of negative affects on: • • • • • • • •

Wildlife (choking and strangling birds and animals). Water quality (diminished). Open spaces (streets, parks and waterways becoming dirty and unsightly). Drains (blockages). The community purse (costs). People (hazards, such as broken glass). Landscape (likelihood of fire). Valuable and recoverable resources and materials.

A study undertaken by Community Change Consultants for the Beverage Industry Environment Council (BIEC 1997, 7–8) found that: • • • • • • • •

More than half of all littering occurred within 5 metres of a bin. There is no such thing as a littering ‘type’. People of all ages and social backgrounds were observed littering and using bins inappropriately. Australians of all ages are more likely to use bins than to litter. The people least likely to litter were those aged under 15 years. There is no clear line between ‘litterers’ and ‘binners’. Many people both littered and used bins in the same hour. Cigarettes are three times more likely to be littered than binned. A high proportion of littering occurs in locations where the rubbish can be hidden or in places resembling litter bins. Factors affecting disposal include: the person’s attitude, their skill in monitoring their own behaviour and the disposable objects, the type and placement of bins at the site, the nature and distance of other ‘bin like’ objects near the person, the type of object and the context in which disposal occurs.

Such findings demonstrate the importance of informing individuals and households of the impacts of their practices and creating policies and strategies to counter inappropriate practices. Anti-litter legislation has been developed and anti-littering organizations, such as Clean Up Australia (2006) – now a global movement – and Keep Australia Beautiful (2005), have been formed to run campaigns urging people not to litter.

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Recycling Challenges Australian city dwellers are expected to sort domestic waste according to its destination, to landfill or for recycling. To minimize costs and maximize the benefits of recycling, householders need to understand recycling processes, what can be recycled. Plastics include a range of compounds made from non-renewable oil and gas and not all are recyclable. Householders must know which items can be and how to identify them. Householder ignorance and apathy results in complex difficulties for recycling. Glass, made from non-renewable resources such as silica (from sand), soda ash and limestone and wholly recyclable, offers an example. In south-east Queensland many tons of sand for glass is mined from Stradbroke Island (eastern Moreton Bay) every day. The more glass that is recycled, ‘post consumer glass’, the less sand that needs to be removed from this popular recreation island to manufacture replacement bottles and jars. Although all glass is recyclable, window glass, glass light bulbs and pyrex are made from different ratios of the same basic ingredients to produce glass with different characteristics. Manufacturing processes are altered to produce glass with different characteristics – glass that can be heated, does not shatter or is stronger. Only glass bottles and jars wholly compatible with remanufacturing processes are acceptable. Therefore, successful glass recycling relies heavily on householders presenting the correct materials for recycling and on the materials recovery facility carefully sorting recycling materials. The biggest difficulty in glass recycling is contamination from small pieces of other glass and non-recyclables, such as window glass, pyrex, stones, coffee cups, crockery, crystal, light bulbs, or heat-proof oven and cookware. A small piece of window glass or pyrex in the furnace used to manufacture glass will not melt fully. Impurities form lumps in the finished item, such as a bottle, which is then dramatically weakened and likely to break under stress. The most common stress for glass bottles is during filling and transport or when exposed to temperature changes, such as storing or removal from the fridge. In these contexts breakages can be dramatic, even explosive. Therefore quality standards regarding recycled cullet are stringent. For example, loads of recycled glass cullet discovered to contain as little as 250g (the equivalent of one coffee cup) may result in the entire load (up to 18 tonnes) being rejected (Schmidt 2005). Recycling results in huge environmental savings. Using cullet in the manufacture of glass reduces the energy needed for melting by up to 25 per cent, saving fuel as well as raw materials. Paper products are made from ‘pulp’ produced by crushing plants, normally trees. Recycling paper conserves trees and saves water and electricity. A ton of paper produced with recycled materials saves 17 trees and uses half of the water required to make paper from virgin materials (AMCOR Limited 2005). Almost any paper can be recycled, except for paper used for hygiene purposes, greasy or food-contaminated papers, waxed cardboard and paper products containing other non-paper materials (such as envelopes with transparent address windows). If householders diligently sort papers, recycling is shortened and more efficient.

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Pure metals are made from non-renewable minerals and ores by melting and extraction processes, which use large amounts of energy. However, metals are recyclable through melting and reshaping. Large steel items are not recycled through the bin collection system due to health and safety risks, damage to collection and sorting equipment, as well as destruction of other potentially recyclable materials. Australia is one of the largest sources of the mineral bauxite. Bauxite is made into aluminium by an energy intensive process called electrolysis. Five tons of bauxite is required to produce one ton of aluminium, but recycling aluminium saves energy. Producing twenty drink cans from recycled materials uses the same amount of energy as making one can from raw materials (Visy Pty Ltd 2004). Conclusion Waste management strategies in Australian cities will continue to be premised on the principles outlined in the waste hierarchy – emphasizing avoidance and reduction as the preferred options and minimal disposal to landfill. If Australia is to move down from the top of the table of nations producing the most waste per capita, new waste services and technologies will need to be introduced coupled with an informed, active community prepared to adopt waste minimization principles in production, consumption and disposal. Sustainable waste management is the responsibility of the three key groups involved in generating and managing waste in Australia: the producers, through extended producer responsibility; the generators, including the household through polluter and user pays approaches, waste minimization, participation in resource recovery processes, and participation in reuse/exchange programs; and the legislators, who provide economic and other legislative instruments to catalyse individual and organizational behaviour change. References AMCOR Limited (2005), AMCOR: Leading Through Innovation [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. Australian Government (2006), National Packaging Covenant [webpage], Department of the Environment and Heritage [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. Beeton, R., Buckley K., Jones, G., Morgan, D., Reichelt, R. and Trewin, D. (2006), Australia State of the Environment 2006 [Independent Report by the 2006 Australian State of the Environment Committee to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Heritage] (Canberra: Department of the Environment and Heritage). BIEC (1997), Understanding Littering Behaviour in Australia (Sydney: Beverage Industry Environment Council). Clean Up Australia (2006), [website, home page], , accessed 1 July 2006.

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CSIRO and Department of Environment and Heritage (2006), Australian Waste Database [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. Department of Environment Western Australia (2004), Statement of Strategic Direction for Waste Management in Western Australia Zero Waste WA: Live the Vision [website] (2005), , accessed 20 December 2006. Environment Victoria (2003), Zero Waste [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006. Environmental Protection Act Qld 1994 (2000), Environmental Protection (Waste Management) Policy 2000, Reprinted as in force on 4 October 2004, Reprint No. 2B, Office of the Queensland Parliamentary Counsel. EPA (2006), Waste Exchange Database, How To Turn Your Waste into a Valuable Resource [webpage], Environmental Protection Authority Victoria [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. Evolution Markets Incorporated (2005), Glossary of Terms [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006 Fuller, P., Smith, G., Wright T. and Zoi, C. (2000), Report of the Alternative Waste Management Technologies and Practices Inquiry April 2000 [Independent Report by the Alternative Waste Management Technologies and Practices Inquiry Committee to the State Government of New South Wales Office of the Minister for the Environment] (Sydney: Government of New South Wales). Global Presence (2000), Resource Exchange Information System: For Regional Exchange Operators [GP website], About Resource Exchange [webpage], accessed 20 December 2006. Government of South Australia (2006), Zero Waste SA [website], , accessed 20 December 2006. Keep Australia Beautiful (2005), Keep Australia Beautiful National Association [website], , accessed 1 July 2005. Keep Australia Beautiful Queensland (2006), Programs and Campaigns: Plastic Bags [webpage], accessed 20 December 2006. Mallee Catchment Management Authority (2004), Mallee CMA [website], Glossary: Common Malleee CMA Terms [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006. Mosman Municipal Council (2006), MMC [website], Waste and Recycling Services [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006. OECD (2001), OECD in Figures: Statistics on the Member Countries, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publications, , accessed 19 December 2006. OECD (2005), OECD in Figures 2005: A Supplement to the OECD Observer; Statistics on the Member Countries, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publications, , accessed 19 December 2006.

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OECD (2006), OECD Environmental Policies and Instruments: Extended Producer Responsibility [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006. Productivity Commission (2006), Waste Generation and Resource Efficiency, [Draft Report 23 May 2006] (Canberra: Productivity Commission). Sahlin, J., Unger, T., Olofsson, M., Ekvall, T. and Sundberg, J. (2002), ‘Heat and Power from Waste Incineration in Sweden – How Will it Develop Under Future CO2 Commitments?’, Waste Management World Magazine January–February 2002: 27–33. Schmidt, A. (2005), ‘Gold Coast City Council: Taking Recycling to a New Level’, Waste Disposal and Water Management in Australia 32:3, 5–10. Schönning, M. (2006), Integrated Waste Management in Sweden, Integrated Waste Services Association [website], , accessed 19 December 2006. Standards Australia (1998), Australian/New Zealand StandardTM: Waste Management Glossary of Terms, AS/NZS 3831:1998 (Homebush/Wellington: Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand). Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2005), A Strategy for Sustainable Waste Management Sweden’s Waste Plan [agency website], , accessed 19 December 2006. van Beukering, P. (1999), ‘Analysing Urban Solid Waste Developing Countries – A Perspective on Bangalore, India’, Warmer Bulletin July 2006: 12–20. Visy Pty Ltd (2004), Visy Recycling Visy [website], Aluminium and Steel [webpage], , accessed 20 December 2006.

Part III Community and Civil Society

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Chapter 11

Community Action and Engagement for Sustainability James Whelan

Introduction Community action shapes the urban landscape of Australian cities and towns. Our urban future will be just as much determined through vigilant and resourceful action by residents’ groups and environmentalists as by the innovative policy work, solutions-oriented research and clever design outlined in other chapters of this book. Vigorous community action is clearly an important element of planning processes in Queensland’s South East region. This rapidly growing coastal area and its hinterland struggle to reconcile population growth with maintaining and restoring a mega-diverse natural environment. Community groups in the region have responded to this challenge with creative and tenacious strategies to conserve and restore habitat, minimize waste and consumption, educate, entertain and protest. On the Gold Coast and in the rural village of Maleny on the Sunshine Coast community action has generated involvement, awareness and sustainable enterprises, as well as averting some of the more destructive development tendencies and proposals. Civic and conservation groups in such Australian cities and towns participate actively in government-initiated community involvement activities but often find engagement and consultation has minimal impact on planning decisions. As a result, residents with clear priorities for urban futures rely on community action, organizing and mobilizing, to influence decisions. Their experiences suggest local and State government authorities struggle with deliberative, inclusive and iterative decisionmaking processes. Campaign anecdotes recounted here through an activist lens shed light on decision-making processes for a sustainable urban future. Community Action: Vital to Sustainability Community action is vital to sustainability. Without the active involvement of community members in shaping towns and cities, development is unlikely to follow a sustainable pattern. This conclusion has been consistently drawn in sustainability blueprints, at least since the World Commission on Environment and Development Report (WCED 1987) Our Common Future. International and domestic sustainability plans, including Agenda 21, the consensus action plan that emerged from the 1992

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World Earth Summit, reinforce this conviction. Broad public participation in decisionmaking and genuine partnership between community, government and industry are prerequisites for the achievement of ecologically sustainable development (ESD). The practical benefits of community involvement are now accepted at all levels of Australian government. Through active self-determination, citizens mobilize resources (including funds and volunteerism that may not have been available otherwise), generate and share knowledge, contribute to better decisions and create community solutions in tune with community needs (Wates 2000, 4–5). Public participation also has the potential to accomplish a more equitable distribution of environmental risk or even diminish risk (Schlosberg 2002, 13). The ‘sustainable community’ narrative comprises a set of assumptions or beliefs: firstly, decisions ideally are made through equitable, deliberative and inclusive processes that allow community members a range of options for involvement; secondly, these processes encourage and support social learning, negotiation, and community building (a positive feedback loop); and, thirdly, the resulting decisions are ones that everyone can live with, and that steer the community toward sustainability. A fourth thread is that subscription to the narrative is universal and in the public interest. This narrative motivates elected representatives and planners to actively involve stakeholders in decision making, and encourages community members to participate in civic life. However, some contemporary examples of activists in Australian cities demonstrate the consequences of overwriting the storyline of environmental democracy with top-down, decide-announce-defend governance arrangements. Two Australian communities – a booming coastal city and a small rural community – provide the backdrop for this discussion. Few Australian cities illustrate the dilemmas of sustainable urban development better than the Gold Coast. This sixth-largest city in Australia expects to grow by one-third to 700,000 in the next fifteen years. Having started life as a holiday resort village, the Gold Coast now extends along almost 70 km of coastline and is rapidly extending into the coastal hinterland, one of Australia’s fifteen biodiversity ‘hotspots’ (DEH 2005). The Gold Coast City Council (GCCC) considers this city the most biologically diverse in Australia. The protection of the region’s flora and fauna and institutions that support community involvement in the burgeoning city clearly warrant urgent government and community action. This is equally true of Maleny, a rural village of roughly 1,700 located on the Maleny Plateau, which has a dispersed population of around 4,500. Such hinterland towns and villages and coastal cities of the Sunshine Coast are all experiencing rapid population growth and consequent pressures on both the biophysical and social environments. Empowered Communities, Powerful Women The Gold Coast City Council’s on-line community directory lists more than 2,000 non-profit community groups, including fifteen environment groups. The diversity, resourcefulness and tenacity of community action is revealed by looking closely at

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one of these groups, the Gold Coast and Hinterland Environment Council (Gecko 2006). Six local environment groups founded this umbrella organization in 1989. Gecko House, on the banks of Currumbin Creek, is a hive of voluntary activity. As well as doing advocacy and community building work, Gecko has created three nonprofit businesses. Gecko Regen coordinates tree planting and revegetation projects including the rehabilitation of landfill sites, and employs thirty people to manage its nursery, field projects and training. Gecko Recycle is modelled on successful reverse garbage enterprises in Brisbane and Sydney, and redirects resources from the waste stream. And Gecko Ed helps schools and other educational institutions engage qualified environmental educators. Volunteers also provide a free information service and website. Gecko is perhaps best known for community events, including the Gold Coast’s annual World Environment Day ‘Do’ and the ‘Clean Up Australia Day’. Both events provide opportunities for thousands to participate in environmental learning and action and have been recognized through awards and sponsorship. Gecko creates further community involvement opportunities with regular information nights, conferences, seminars, a monthly meeting of member groups, Walk With Wildlife guided bushwalks and artGecko participatory cultural events. For a small village, Maleny has a remarkably strong community sector. An online directory (Sunweb 2005) lists almost seventy diverse community organizations in the town, from a recorder group to nursing mothers, film society, Landcare and hospital auxiliary. Jordan and Haydon (2003) interviewed members of almost one hundred and fifty village groups. The City of Caloundra, of which Maleny is a satellite settlement, boasts more than twenty-three voluntary community-based environmental organizations (CC 2001b). A striking feature of community life in Maleny is the more than twenty cooperatives established since the 1970s. Their objectives include the coordination, provision and support of housing, whole foods, social and cultural activities, education and learning, artistic and publishing enterprises, conservation and waste minimization, credit, finance and business incubation. Maleny’s cooperative sector has received international attention, contributing to the town’s spirit of cooperation and enterprise (Schwarz and Schwarz 1997) in a time when Australian rural communities have been declining. Cooperatives have created, directly, at least one hundred and thirty jobs (Jordan 2000; 2003) and, indirectly, hundreds more. Maleny’s Local Energy Transfer System (LETS) facilitates the exchange of ‘bunya’, a non-cash ‘currency’ named after the edible nut prized by the region’s traditional owners, in return for labour services, the first of its kind in Australia (Douthwaite 1998). In researching Maleny, it is impossible to ignore the narrative of an empowered community seeking to determine its own sustainable destiny. This shone through in radio interviews (ABC 2003) in which Maleny locals spoke of their community having a high level of social capital and cohesion, comparing it to a ‘tribe’, an intentional community, and suggesting these attributes provide a degree of resilience in a time of rapid change. For this reason, the unsuccessful community campaign examined here is of particular interest. Another feature of community action in Maleny, the Gold Coast and other Australian cities is the pivotal role of women. Lois Levy and Sheila Davis have been the public faces of Gecko for fifteen years. Lois’s profile on Gecko’s website

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(2006) communicates her belief that ‘an educated community plays a vital role in protecting and caring for nature’. As well as being a full-time TAFE instructor and social worker, she received an Order of Australia medal in 2001 for services to the environment. Sheila is widely recognized as a tenacious battler and community builder. She juggles being Gecko’s Campaign Coordinator with raising two children, as well as writing and volunteering for several other community groups. Jill Jordan is arguably Maleny’s best-known community activist. During the last thirty years, Jill helped found and steer cooperatives locally and around Australia. In the early 1990s she served as a councillor for the rural division of Caloundra City, encompassing Maleny. Jill, Sheila, Lois and the many, many women involved in community actions described here are part of a bigger picture. Women often drive grassroots campaigns in Australia and internationally. This is seen in Kathleen McPhillips’s (2002) collection of activists’ accounts of community toxics campaigns in Australia, Lois Gibbs’s leadership against toxic waste dumping in Love Canal (USA), and women leading the demand for justice in Bhopal, India, where Union Carbide released poisonous chemicals in 1984, and opposition to nuclear power stations in Europe (Miles and Shiva 1993,14). Eisler (1987: 189) attributes women’s dynamic contribution to community life to socialization processes that encourage men to ‘pursue their own ends, even at the expense of others’ whereas women are socialized to ‘see themselves primarily as responsible for the welfare of others, even at the expense of their own well-being’. Milbrath (1989: 54) concludes that ‘women have a much better chance of saving the world than men’. Gender forms an additional element to the narrative: women occupy positions of leadership in healthy communities on the path toward sustainability. Government Initiated Community Engagement Local government, the form of government closest to communities, has better opportunities than State and national governments to engage, involve and mobilize communities around sustainability objectives. This is affirmed in ‘Local Agenda 21’, the international campaign endorsed at the 1992 Rio World Earth Summit, which ‘promotes a participatory, long-term, strategic planning process that helps municipalities identify local sustainability priorities and implement long-term action plans’ (ICLEI 2005). Ten years after Rio, 6,400 local government authorities in 113 countries had implemented Local Agenda 21 initiatives, including establishing stakeholder groups to develop and implement local sustainability plans. The Local Government Association of Australia and Gold Coast and Caloundra city councils embrace Local Agenda 21. This commitment to active community participation and to the sustainable communities narrative permeates government discourse. Caloundra City Council’s Corporate Plan (CC 2001a, 6) set an objective for 2006, to ‘be a City and a community which has created its own destiny and which continues to refine and redefine its future on a regular basis’. Elected representatives express this vision in the city’s corporate and strategic plans and State of the Environment reports. Caloundra’s

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Mayor, Don Aldous (Local Government Focus 2004), said the council ‘cannot’ meet the challenges of governing a rapidly growing and changing city ‘in isolation’ but ‘needs the enthusiasm and participation of its community’. The GCCC claims to take a consultative approach to decisions about flood mitigation, catchment management, rates, beach and harbour management, transport, tourism, crime and safety. The importance attached to community involvement in decision-making is evident in the Harbour Planning Study, which GCCC (2003) refers to as having reconciled ‘traditionally competing interests to construct a longterm mechanism for area management’ that integrates ‘broadly-based community, environmental and business interests’. Conservationists were active in this policy-setting exercise and the parallel Waterfuture Strategy, which examined water quality and quantity options for this drought-prone city. In developing the Waterfuture Strategy, GCCC used a range of community engagement processes. Following initial research, the council disseminated a discussion starter that outlined problems and possible solutions and held community information sessions, workshops and focus groups. A newsletter and survey were distributed throughout the city, generating 9,000 responses. To develop a strategy that would ‘create a feeling of joint ownership’ (GCCC 2005a), the council identified and addressed questions of community trust and confidence in the council to ensure the strategy did not ‘ignore community opinion’ (GCCC 2005b). This council is not unique in experiencing distrust and criticism concerning provision for community involvement in governance. Woolcock et al. (2003) note these concerns are widespread and substantial. The council also remains open to community opinion year-round through its on-line consultation panel, which provides regular opportunities for community members to contribute to decisions through surveys and focus groups. Community groups value such opportunities. Their vision for a sustainable region and members’ wide range of interests motivates Gecko to participate in up to a dozen advisory and consultative committees with State and local government authorities at any one time. Lois Levy would like to see Gecko even more involved in making policy. Conflict: Competing or Complementary Narrative? Despite strong expressions of support for community involvement to steer sustainability, Maleny and the Gold Coast have generated headlines nationally and internationally for sustained conflict over development decisions. The high level of engagement suggested in local government plans and strategies, and described by community activists interviewed for this chapter, has been a backdrop to urban planning decisions characterized by rancorous conflict, litigation and allegations of secrecy and corruption. In Maleny, conflict has been triggered by the construction of a supermarket beside picturesque Obi Obi Creek, which crosses the village’s main street. On the Gold Coast, a controversy is raging around a proposal to develop a terminal for cruise ships on The Spit, a strip of dunes separating the city’s harbour (The

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Broadwater) from the ocean. Both developments are contrary to local area plans developed through extensive community consultation. These disputes communicate a contrasting narrative including the following threads: 1. Community action is an essential safeguard against solely economic interests that are, by nature, unsustainable. 2. Government-initiated community engagement practices have strictly limited capacity to counteract these economic interests, especially when local government is overtly influenced by the development industry or overridden by the Queensland Government. 3. Community action that builds power to confront government and industry is an essential part of the mix. The suggestion that a large supermarket may be built in Maleny has brewed for years and the town’s history of cooperative enterprises and buying locally has consistently generated opposition to the notion. Community members participating in the development of the town’s Local Area Plan (1999–2001) ensured that the planning scheme explicitly ruled out this possibility. Naturally, locals were up in arms when a supermarket development in the heart of the village was subsequently proposed. Community spokesperson, Michael Berry (Range News 2002), urged Caloundra City Council to ‘exercise its duty of care’ by protecting ‘the retail and social heart of this town’, noting, as visitors do almost immediately, that Maple Street embodies the village community’s spirit. Conducting interviews with locals at footpath cafés on Maple Street – the source of all the quotes and background information without specific reference in this chapter – I was continually interrupted by greetings and connections typical of a close-knit town. This spirit was spectacularly demonstrated when the village’s existing independent supermarket celebrated its centenary and almost 2,000 people turned out. Even before Woolworths secured its site, community organizing began in earnest. People were galvanized by concerns about traffic generated by the proposed supermarket’s 180 parking spaces, stormwater and trade-waste management, anticipating impacts on the town’s economy and character, the loss of open space and impacts on a recognized platypus habitat. (Maleny is one of the very few towns where these shy monotremes can be regularly observed in the heart of an urban area.) Another significant point of community opposition to the proposal was the decision-making process. Community members felt left out, and expressed outrage through a long series of community meetings, rallies and publications. As the development approval processes gained momentum, so did the community campaign. The council’s failure to embed the wishes of the community into its 2004 strategic plan (the local town planning scheme) allowed the State government to take the supermarket decision out of the community’s hands. A petition asking for the decision to remain the council’s responsibility was signed by 2000 Maleny residents but failed, which prompted Michael Berry (Range News 2002) to note:

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We are locked out of the process and Council has no duty to take heed of resident objections. In other words, a developer living in Melbourne can decide to fundamentally change the character of the Maleny township without ever having been here and without the township having any say in that change.

In the ensuing conflict, councillors, town planners and community leaders pointed the finger at each other, while Woolworths moved closer to realizing its intention. One councillor suggested that community representatives in the local area planning group were responsible for failing to include provisions against such a proposal in the council’s planning scheme. Jill Jordan was quick to point out, however, that the voluntary committee members: gave up their nights and Sundays for three years to do a great job on developing a plan that the community wanted and had ‘signed off’ on, and they shouldn’t be castigated for not doing what the Council Planning Department, whose planners are being paid $80,000 per annum, should have done!

Community action (2004–2005) culminated in a series of well-attended rallies and protest actions. There were regular community-initiated negotiations involving Woolworths, the construction company and the council. The Deen Brothers, who had come to fame for their part in the midnight demolition of several heritage buildings in Brisbane, were hired to clear forty large trees on the site in April 2004. Heavy machinery rolled into town at night. The community’s condemnation was palpable. Over two hundred people attempted to stop the work despite the lack of warning. With the support of local Aboriginal groups, approximately seventy protestors occupied the site chanting, ‘We won’t shop there,’ and, ‘We shall overcome’ (Courier Mail 2005a). Around twenty of them erected tents and marked out the platypus burrows they believed would be destroyed. Maleny local, Daniel Jones, climbed one of the remaining bunya pines, where he stayed for 100 days. His supporters in the community (including local businesses) provided warm meals and solidarity throughout the winter months, further demonstrating the depth of community support for the protest. In May 2004, the Woolworths developer, Cornerstone Properties, offered to sell the site to the council and community for $A1.89 million (considerably more than the $A600,000 paid nine months previously). A petition with 5,300 signatures – more than the town’s entire population – contributed to the council’s effort to acquire the land as a community asset. Despite extraordinary community fundraising efforts and a part commitment by the council, the asking price was not achieved. The whole scenario was replayed in July 2005 when an eleventh hour deal was brokered with the new Woolworths developer, Uniton Pty Ltd, to purchase the site. By mortgaging their homes and pledging donations, the small community raised $A2 million within 48 hours. The developer spurned the cheque on the grounds that Woolworths had not agreed to the deal. The opportunity for a win-win conclusion was lost, and construction commenced. Even so, creative and vociferous community opposition to the supermarket continued. In July 2005, Maleny residents lay head to toe in a nearby park, spelling out anti-Woolworths slogans and, in August, Daniel Jones,

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dressed in a platypus suit, re-entered the construction site to lock himself to heavy machinery. It was difficult to imagine Woolworths succeeding in Maleny, where placards, stickers, t-shirts and banners reading, ‘Don’t shop there’, ‘Support small business’, ‘Spare Maleny from bad planning’, and ‘Keep Maleny’s character’, urged shoppers to boycott the supermarket. On-line activists were encouraged to register opinions on the website. The gate of the construction site was decorated with ribbons as a reminder of local opposition and locals spoke with conviction about ensuring the business failed. Jill Jordan swore that the community would ‘frustrate them at their own game’ and ‘teach them about economics’. ‘At the beginning,’ Jill says: it was really just the radicals. As the campaign’s gone on, it’s just grown and grown. As Woolworths have shown themselves to be the bullies they are, it’s drawn more and more the conservative community who are now contributing to the strategic options of how we can make this thing fail.

Around the country, people sympathetic to the community’s battle abandoned shopping trolleys filled with non-perishable items in Woolworths supermarkets in solidarity. On the Gold Coast, a similar battle was raging. Community groups, including Gecko, contributed to the Gold Coast Harbour Study, which identified The Spit, a peninsula of sand dunes and open space immediately to the north of the city centre, as an important asset to be retained and enhanced. Specifically, the study (GCCC 2003) resolved that there would be no further private or commercial development on The Spit. Lois described the consultative processes that led to this policy as ‘exhausting’. Gecko submitted written responses to the council’s monthly drafts and proposals, and eventually ‘carried the vote’. Despite the policy, a terminal for large cruise ships and associated on-land development was placed on the drawing board. Community groups identified a range of concerns about this proposal, including: loss of open space, amenity and recreational access on land and water; pollution; economic impacts; waste management; and impacts on marine habitat and biodiversity. As in Maleny, the dialogue between the community and its local government became somewhat irrelevant as the development decision was placed in the hands of the State government. The project was declared a significant project, championed by the Department of State Development, acting as both proponent and assessor. The cruise terminal was exempted from the State coastal policy. Having decided the area north of Sea World would be a port, the State government was not obliged to recognize the council’s planning guidelines. This top-down approach, combined with secrecy surrounding a State government study of liner movements in the seaway, compounded Gecko’s lack of confidence in the modes of consultation and engagement on offer. Lois, Sheila and other community leaders declared the foreshadowed Environmental Impact Statement a ‘rubber stamp for development’ and called for more meaningful dialogue. Gecko (2005) said that the ‘Premier and his Government have failed the accountability and transparency test by refusing to provide the community with any information’, and warning (Courier Mail 2005b):

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‘They’re going to override our town plan. If they do it once what’s to stop them doing it again. It sets a precedent.’ A forgiving appraisal of these two scenarios might let government agencies off the hook. Local government authorities cannot be held responsible for planning decisions and methods adopted by State agencies, and vice versa. Some conservationists blame Queensland’s Integrated Planning Act for State government decisions that contradict prior community consultation by local government. From a community perspective, however, such justification is unconvincing. Citizens who have actively contributed to policy decisions at either level will naturally react with disappointment, if not outrage, if jurisdiction is subsequently assumed by other agencies. Having exhausted the usefulness of community delegations and submissions, Gecko and their allies soon turned to alliance building and mobilization. The Save Our Spit (SOS) alliance was formed to pursue the shared concerns of over twenty groups, including conservationists, residents, ratepayers, surfers, divers, recreational fishers and local businesses. In April and July 2005, the alliance held rallies of more than 2,000 people in the Doug Jennings Park on The Spit and collected 6,500 signatures on a petition subsequently carried on a surfboard by local surfers into a meeting of State government ministers and parliamentarians in July 2005. These two struggles seriously test the ‘sustainable community’ narrative. Community members participating in consultative policy-setting exercises in Maleny and the Gold Coast speak of being out-voted by pro-development interests, having their input ignored, receiving little or no support for their participation while generous allowances are available to others, and of ‘burning out’ their voluntary delegates. Jill considers the council’s community engagement activities are ‘rigged’ and outcomes that might impede development are ignored. Despite maintaining positive relationships with council planning officers and working solidly to facilitate collaboration, Lois Levy says that ‘the lines are drawn’ between Gecko and GCCC and that relations with developers are worse. During the last five years Gecko noted with concern the termination of the environmental advisory committee and the current mayor’s ‘lack of interest in community engagement’. Their experience was at odds with the State of the Environment Report (CC 2001b, 2), where the mayor acknowledges ‘the achievements of the many individuals and community groups who have generously committed their own time to sustain the environment which benefits all of us.’ Community groups in both cities consider secrecy is a regular feature of decision making. It is tempting to suggest a discontented minority fuels such disputes, and to suggest that more effective or creative engagement processes can overcome the conflict by creating a deliberative space for all views to be heard and integrated. But the observations and interviews that inform this chapter suggest that, in these and other communities, planning decisions are infrequently made through satisfactory engagement and consensus-based decision making. Basic standards of transparency and inclusiveness were not adhered to. During the conflicts described here, a probity audit was launched to investigate Caloundra City Council’s decisions as developer and assessment authority for a golf course and residential development in Maleny. Simultaneously, the GCCC

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was embroiled in a Crime and Misconduct Commission inquiry into allegations of misconduct and election bribery in the 2004 council elections, when a secret developer-backed election campaign fund was established to support a majority of ‘like-minded’ (pro-development) councillors. The inquiry would also pursue allegations that a subdivision of one of the region’s last cane farms ‘ignored Council officers’ advice and state government planning regulations’ (Sunshine Coast Daily 2005). Lois Levy said, ‘It won’t matter what happens now with the Crime and Misconduct Commission. That Council is dead and buried. Nobody will ever believe them again.’ In terms of democratic legitimacy, voluntary community groups enjoy broad and resilient foundations. Citizens trust and rely on community groups more than government or industry, especially with respect to environmental information (NSW EPA 1994; 2004). Citizens are highly responsive to the rallying calls of conservation groups. Gecko’s rallies to conserve The Spit have attracted growing numbers, and their membership is strong. The Maleny protests were well attended and, when it looked like the supermarket site could be bought, $2 million was raised within 48 hours. Reconciling the Two Narratives From the experiences of community activists in Maleny and the Gold Coast, it is easy to conclude that polite discussion about the future of Australian cities and towns are unlikely to steer us toward sustainability. Even though government, community and industry almost universally embrace dialogue and deliberation and attempt creative mechanisms for this dialogue, there are compelling reasons for conservationists to rely on mobilization and grassroots politics rather than community engagement. Conservation victories achieved outside the deliberative space are impressive. In the recent past, community groups on the Gold Coast prevented construction of a cableway through the Springbrook World Heritage Area and cabins in an adjacent conservation area, they attempted to prevent further development on the city’s major flood-prone area, the Gurungumbah flood plain, and successfully opposed building the Eastern Tollway through koala habitat. At the same time, they have seen prevailing decision-making approaches result in the incremental erosion of parkland and remnant vegetation – what Lois calls the ‘nibble syndrome’ – and the wholesale destruction of areas of remnant vegetation for housing development. Community action also prevented a cement batching plant from being established in Maleny. It seems unlikely that the spirit reflected in these campaigns will be diluted or defused. Even as bulldozers cleared the Woolworths site, one Maleny local predicted the campaign loss ‘will actually strengthen the idea of Maleny as being an independent community which stands up for its rights and what it believes in’ (ABC 2005). However, there are long-term consequences of failing to provide satisfactory mechanisms for deliberative planning, of forcing conservationists and other community groups to choose between dialogue and oppositional community action that may outstrip short-term gains. Lester Milbrath (1989) suggests the ‘dominator society’ is incapable of sustainability and that social learning through

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approaches involving partnership and collaboration is urgently required. Community activists in Maleny and the Gold Coast know this. Despite years of ‘hard slog’ on committees where they are ‘hopelessly outnumbered by rednecks with no idea about environmental planning’, Lois, Sheila and Gecko remain committed to dialogue. Jill Jordan is similarly committed to fixing, rather than rejecting, engagement practices. ‘Conflict can be magic,’ Jill assured me, ‘but only when people are genuinely willing to listen, and to change their position on the basis of what they’ve heard.’ References ABC (2003), ‘Re-Imagining Utopia 5: Alternative Economics’, ABC [website], Radio National Life Matters [webpage] 2 June [broadcast], http://www.abc.net. au/rn/talks/lm/stories/s853654.htm>, accessed 15 November 2005. ABC (2005), ‘Police Move in on Maleny Platypus Protest’, ABC [website], Radio National PM [webpage] 12 July, , accessed 15 November 2005. CC (2001a), Corporate Plan: Creating Our Future, Caloundra City Council [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. CC (2001b), State of the Environment Report, Caloundra City Council [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Courier Mail (2005a), ‘Protestors Closed Ranks at Woollies Site’, 6 May, , accessed 15 November 2005. Courier Mail (2005b), ‘Coast Cruise Terminal Goes Ahead’, 16 September, , accessed 15 November 2005. DEH (2005), Australia’s 15 National Biodiversity Hotspots, Department of Environment and Heritage [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Douthwaite, R. (1998), Strengthening Local Economies for Security in an Unstable World, ‘Epilogue’ [webpage, updated February 2003], Foundation for the Economics of Sustainability [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Eisler, R. (1987), The Chalice and the Blade: Our History, Our Future (San Francisco: Harper and Row). GCCC (2003), Gold Coast Harbour Study [Council Report 22], Gold Coast City Council [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. GCCC (2005a), Gold Coast Waterfuture Strategy 2006–2056, Gold Coast City Council [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. GCCC (2005b), Gold Coast Waterfuture Community Engagement Report, Gold Coast City Council [website], , accessed 15 November 2005.

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Gecko (2005), ‘Media Release Time for Terminal Accountability’, Gecko [website], , accessed 15 November 2006. Gecko (2006), [website], , accessed 25 November 2006. ICLEI (2005), Local Agenda 21 (LA21) Campaign [webpage], International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives Local Governments for Sustainability [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Jordan, J. (2000), ‘Focus on the Future: Workshop 2, Jill Jordan on Community Building, Workshop at Rosneath Ecovillage’, Rosneath [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Jordan, J. (2003), ‘The Co-operative Movement in Maleny, Queensland’, [Case Study No.11. Paper] Co-operative Federation of WA Inc. Conference. Jordan, J. and Haydon, S. (2003), Maleny Working Together (Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services). Local Government Focus (2004), Engaging the Community in Tailored Consultation, , accessed 15 November 2005. McPhillips, K. (2002), Local Heroes: Australian Crusades from the Environmental Frontline (Sydney: Pluto Press). Milbrath, L. (1989), Envisioning a Sustainable Society: Learning Our Way Out, (Albany: State University of New York Press). Miles, M. and Shiva, V. (1993), Ecofeminism (Melbourne: Spinifex). NSW EPA (1994), Who Cares About the Environment? A Benchmark Survey of the Environmental Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes and Behaviour of the People of New South Wales. (Sydney: New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority). NSW EPA (2004), Who Cares About the Environment in 2003? A Survey of NSW People’s Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviours (Sydney: New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority). Range News (2002), ‘People Power: Residents Vow to Fight Development’ 13 December, , accessed 15 November 2005. Schlosberg, D. (2002), Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism: the Challenge of Difference for Environmentalism (London: Oxford University Press). Schwarz, W. and Schwarz, D. (1997), ‘Culture of Cooperation’, Resurgence 184, Resurgence [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Sunshine Coast Daily (2005), ‘Caloundra’s Audit Report Stays Shrouded in Mystery’ 28 September, Sunshine Coast Daily [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Sunweb (2005), ‘Groups and Organisations’, Sunweb [website], , accessed 15 November 2005. Wates, N. (2000), The Community Planning Handbook: How People Can Shape Their Cities, Towns and Villages in Any Part of the World (London: Earthscan Publications).

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Woolcock, G., Renton, D. and Cavaye, J. (2003), What Makes Communities Tick? Local Government & Social Capital Action Research Project, Pilot Study in Queensland (Brisbane: Local Government Association of Queensland and University of Queensland ‘Boilerhouse’ Community Service & Research Centre). WCED (1987), Our Common Future [Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development] (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

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Chapter 12

WestWyck: An Urban Sustainability Demonstration Site Mike Hill and Lorna Pitt

Introduction Sprawling suburbia is the net result of the developer-driven layout of our cities. As western cities sprawl they leave a trail of social, economic and environmental devastation: isolated and disconnected people, decaying infrastructure, motor vehicle worship and domination, and dramatic declines in qualities of design and construction. This chapter describes how a small private enterprise swam against the tide, yet discovered support and success in changing the dominant paradigm of urban development. When a group purchased an inner suburban Melbourne primary school to prevent its demolition they were delivered a rare opportunity to create a demonstration model that saved buildings, respected the environment and built a new community. WestWyck WestWyck is sited in West Brunswick, Victoria, Australia (WestWyck 2007). It looks south to the central business district of Melbourne, across Royal Park, and west to the Moonee Ponds Creek with the famous Moonee Valley racetrack, a ten-minute walk away. It is 7 km from the Melbourne Town Hall and twenty minutes, at most times of the day, from the Melbourne airport. It is situated in a designated urban village and has many local facilities on its doorstep. The WestWyck building has been listed on the National Estate and is within one of Moreland City Council’s designated heritage areas. The area contains a mixture of single-fronted Victorian terrace homes, larger hilltop Edwardian houses, some intact Californian bungalows and some more modern infill housing. WestWyck occupies the building and grounds of the former Brunswick West Primary School. The school ran out of students in the 1980s, just one example of quality urban infrastructure that had lost its purpose and faced the bulldozer as a result of the changing demographics of inner Melbourne. As inner city population levels fell, cash-strapped governments attempted to meet the needs of the sprawling outer suburbs by selling off underused urban social and physical infrastructure. In 1993 a consortium of five people bought the old school, wanting to save quality infrastructure from demolition and bring to the building a new and vibrant life in its

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traditional setting. The consortium undertook a feasibility study, which considered its possible uses as housing, a performance venue, backpackers’ accommodation and a seminar or conference centre. Initially it operated as a performance venue and occasional seminar facility, becoming well known locally for some high-quality and accessible performances. Gradually, it became clear that, whichever direction WestWyck took, it would require a high level of investment. At this point, when some members of the original consortium gave notice that they wished to sell out, Lorna Pitt and Mike Hill – the authors of this chapter – committed themselves to buying their partners’ shares. They felt that the building was likely to be demolished if placed on the open market. Subsequently, in 1997, Lorna and Mike dedicated themselves to creating WestWyck as an integrated showpiece of ecologically sustainable development (ESD) and living, a model preservation of quality building stock, and demonstration of high-quality design. To this end, they set out to create a cohesive community by building new dwellings within the former school building and on the former playground. At the end of the completion of Stage One (2007) the WestWyck development comprised a communal (shared) housing area, five new town houses on the school grounds, and seven warehouse-style apartments skilfully designed into the old classrooms and corridors of a Victorian era school building. By late 2006 four of the schoolhouse apartments were already occupied by new owners, two further apartments were on the market and construction work had commenced on the five townhouses. Marketing was undertaken by a partnership between a local agent and a real estate company specializing in environmental property projects. Demonstration, Advocacy and Education A key aim of the WestWyck project had been to create a ‘demonstration ecovillage’ in an urban location. WestWyck had a mission to influence. Through provision of a demonstration model, it wanted to support and facilitate the evolution of sustainability policies and practices that relate to the built form within urban communities. It targeted change at all associated levels: State government, local government, water and energy authorities and private sectors. WestWyck has been educational, aiming to raise standards and increase the knowledge base for future residential developments through demonstration and leadership, with a long-term aim to conduct tours to promote issues associated with sustainable housing development. The WestWyck developers consciously set out to make contact and retain relationships with like and related projects in Australia and overseas (see Table 12.1). ESD the WestWyck Way WestWyck has developed a residential site according to key sustainability principles of materials efficiency, energy efficiency and water efficiency.

WestWyck: An Urban Sustainability Demonstration Site

Table 12.1

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Examples of projects with aims similar to WestWyck

Project

Website

Australia Somerville Ecovillage

Christie Walk The Sustainable House The Green Building, 60L (60 Leicester Street, Carlton) Szencorp Building, 40 Albert Rd, Melbourne CERES, Brunswick Merri Co-housing & Ecovillage, Moreland Solar Dwellings Moreland Energy Foundation WestWyck