Environmental Principles and Policies: An Interdisciplinary Introduction

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ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES

PROFESSOR DR SHARON BEDER is in the School of Social Sciences, Media and Communication at the University of Wollongong and has held a number of appointments at Australian universities over the past two decades. Beder has written six books as well as some 140 articles, book chapters and conference papers. She is a qualified professional engineer and worked in this field until a career shift into researching and teaching environmental politics. Her website is Her earlier books, some of which have been translated into other languages, include: Suiting Themselves: How Corporations Drive the Global Agenda, Earthscan, London (2006); Power Play: The Fight for Control of the World’s Electricity, Scribe, Melbourne and the New Press, New York (2003); Selling the Work Ethic: From Puritan Pulpit to Corporate PR, Zed Books, London and Scribe, Melbourne (2000); Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism, Green Books, Devon, UK and Scribe, Melbourne (1997 and 2002); The New Engineer, Macmillan, Melbourne (1998); The Nature of Sustainable Development, Scribe, Melbourne (1996) and Toxic Fish and Sewer Surfing, Allen & Unwin, Sydney (1989).

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES An interdisciplinary introduction

SHARON BEDER

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First published by the University of New South Wales Press Ltd in 2006 Published outside Australia, New Zealand and Oceania by Earthscan © Sharon Beder, 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN-10: 1-84407-404-8 1-84407-405-6 ISBN-13: 978-1-84407-404-4 978-1-84407-405-1

paperback hardback paperback hardback

Typesetting by Ruth Pidd Printer Everbest, China Cover design by Di Quick based on photographs by Sharon Beder For a full list of publications please contact: Earthscan 8–12 Camden High Street London, NW1 0JH, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7387 8558 Fax: +44 (0)20 7387 8998 Email: [email protected] Web: www.earthscan.co.uk 22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling, VA 20166-2012, USA Earthscan is an imprint of James and James (Science Publishers) Ltd and publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beder, Sharon. Environmental principles and policies : an interdisciplinary introduction / Sharon Beder. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-84407-404-4 (pbk.) ISBN-10: 1-84407-404-8 (pbk.) ISBN-13: 978-1-84407-405-1 (hardback) ISBN-10: 1-84407-405-6 (hardback) 1. Environmental policy. 2. Science and the humanities. I. Title. GE170.B43 2006 363.7'05--dc22 2006021876 Printed on chlorine-free paper

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1

Principles Policies

2 6

PA R T I • E N V I R O N M E N TA L PROTECTION PRINCIPLES 1

2

THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE

12

Limits to growth Sustainability in the 1980s Carrying capacity Ecological footprint Continuing debate Further reading

13 17 20 25 30 31

THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE

32

Functions of the polluter pays principle Liability Extended producer responsibility Further reading

37 39 44 46

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THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE

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Shifting the burden of proof Nature of the precautionary principle Threat to desired level of protection Scientific uncertainty Measures to be taken Legislation Further reading

48 51 53 56 62 64 67

PA RT I I • S O C I A L P R I N C I P L E S A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L P R O T E C T I O N 4

5

6

THE EQUITY PRINCIPLE

70

Intragenerational equity Intergenerational equity What should be sustained? Further reading

71 80 85 89

HUMAN RIGHTS PRINCIPLES

91

Role of environmental protection Environmental human rights Further reading

94 101 104

THE PARTICIPATION PRINCIPLE

105

The right to know Public participation Further reading

106 116 121

PA RT I I I • E C O N O M I C M E T H O D S O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L VA L U A T I O N 7

MEASURING ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE

124

National accounts Cost–benefit analysis Environmental valuation in practice Further reading

126 129 134 137

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IS MONETARY VALUATION PRINCIPLED?

138

The participation principle The equity principle Human rights principles The sustainability principle The precautionary principle

138 143 147 148 151

PA RT I V • E C O N O M I C I N S T R U M E N T S FOR POLLUTION CONTROL 9

10

11

12

PRICES AND POLLUTION RIGHTS

156

Price-based measures Tradeable pollution rights Global warming measures Further reading

158 161 168 173

THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE AND ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS

174

Setting the baseline or cap Phoney reductions Monitoring and enforcement Perpetuating bad practices

176 178 182 187

THE POLLUTER PAYS AND PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLES APPLIED

192

The polluter pays principle The precautionary principle

192 199

RIGHTS, EQUITY AND PARTICIPATION PRINCIPLES APPLIED

204

Human rights principles The equity principle The participation principle

204 210 216

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PA RT V • M A R K E T S F O R C O N S E R VA T I O N 13

14

15

16

QUOTAS, TRADES, OFFSETS AND BANKS

222

Tradeable fishing rights Water trading Salinity trading and offsets Mitigation banking Further reading

223 226 230 231 238

THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE AND CONSERVATION MARKETS

239

Fisheries trading Water allowance trading Mitigation banking

239 245 249

THE EQUITY, PARTICIPATION AND PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLES APPLIED

257

The equity principle and tradeable fishing quotas The equity principle and water trading The participation principle The precautionary principle

257 264 266 268

CONCLUSION

275

Bibliography Index

279 297

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INTRODUCTION

This book discusses six major principles of relevance to environmental issues and uses them to evaluate a set of environmental policies. The principles chosen include three that are specific to environmental matters – ecological sustainability, the polluter pays principle and the precautionary principle – and three more that have wider social application – equity, human rights and public participation. While these six principles are by no means comprehensive, and different scholars, policy analysts and environmental groups have recommended others as also relevant to environmental policies, they were selected because they were developed over the past half century and have the broadest acceptance around the world. Each has, to varying degrees, been incorporated into international treaties and national law. While these six principles can and should be used to evaluate all environmental policies, this book focuses on one set of policies. This set of policies forms the new wave of economic instruments and market-oriented environmental policies that seek to utilise economic incentives and market forces in protecting the environment. These economics-based policies are being progressively applied at the national and international level, and have been embraced by business, government and many environmental groups. The following brief historical context should be useful in better understanding the political significance of the principles and environmental policies around which this book has been written.

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PRINCIPLES The sustainability principle The first wave of modern environmentalism was associated with the counter-culture movement of the 1960s and 1970s. It grew out of traditional nature conservation concerns into an awareness of the potential for a global ecological crisis, and introduced the world to the concept of ‘sustainability’, of systems in equilibrium. Environmentalists and others argued that exponential growth was not sustainable – that it could not be continued forever because the planet was finite. In other words, there were limits to growth. They argued that the exponential growth of populations and industrial activity could not be sustained without seriously depleting Earth’s resources and overloading the planet’s ability to deal with pollution and waste materials. Between 1965 and 1970 environmental groups proliferated, and the protection of the environment, especially through the control of pollution, rose dramatically as a public priority in many countries. Time magazine labelled environmental protection a ‘national obsession’ in America. A ‘sense of urgency – even crisis – suddenly pervaded public discussion of environmental issues. The press was filled with stories of environmental trauma …’ (Vogel 1989: 65). Despite controversy at the time over whether economic growth was a help or a hindrance to the achievement of ecological sustainability, the essential role of the planet’s ecosystems in providing life-support systems for humans as well as ensuring their health and wellbeing was widely recognised, as was the fact that human activity had the potential to irreparably damage those ecosystems.

The polluter pays principle Governments worldwide responded to this early wave of environmental concern with new forms of comprehensive environmental legislation and the establishment of environmental regulatory agencies. The new environmental laws were part of a general trend in legislation aimed at regulating corporate activities and constraining unwanted business activities. The polluter pays principle was introduced in the 1970s because of concerns that pollution control laws might disadvantage the industries of some nations. The first international agreement on the polluter pays principle was incorporated in a 1972 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Council recommendation. Its main goal was to prevent governments from subsidising pollution control and thereby giving companies from their own nations an unfair

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advantage in competing for international trade with firms from other nations which did not subsidise pollution control. The idea was that the costs of pollution control should be reflected in the cost of goods and services that required such controls. It was only later that the goal of providing an incentive to prevent pollution by making firms responsible for paying for its prevention and consequences became widely accepted. The notion of the polluter pays principle as an ethical principle, a principle of fairness and responsibility, also developed later.

The precautionary principle The precautionary principle as an official principle guiding policy also dates back to the 1970s, when it was incorporated into German and Swedish environmental policy. The first recognition of the precautionary principle in an international agreement came in 1982 when it was incorporated into the World Charter for Nature and adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly (EC 2000a: 11). Until the 1970s environmental protection existed mainly in the form of remedial action. Governments were reluctant to do anything to protect the environment unless demonstrable harm had already occurred. In this context, uncertainty was frequently used as a reason to postpone government intervention, which all too often meant that death or serious harm occurred before anything was done; witness the case of asbestos, which caused the deaths of thousands of people before it was banned (Harramoës et al. 2001). The inadequacy of the reactive approach became undeniably apparent after a series of unpredicted environmental disasters, including the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer and the chemical contamination of various marine environments such as the North Sea. It became evident that the ability of the oceans and the atmosphere to soak up and dilute and assimilate a variety of pollutants without detriment was limited. The precautionary principle seemed particularly relevant to marine pollution, ‘where an abundance of ecological data on pollution yielded little understanding but much concern’, and during the 1980s it was integrated into a number of international treaties beginning with the North Sea Treaties (de Sadeleer 2002: 94; MacGarvin 1994: 69). Modern environmental regulations are more anticipatory than earlier such regulations. Although their introduction was in most cases forced by evidence of environmental harm, they seek to prevent further harm by considering the environmental impacts of human activities in advance, evaluating risks and preventing activities known to be harmful. They are based on the idea that it is safer, and often less expensive, to prevent damage rather than attempting to fix it up later. The precautionary

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principle, which goes even further than this, says that even where it is not certain that serious or irreversible harm will be caused, if it is likely, action should be taken to prevent it.

The participation principle Many governments introduced requirements for the environmental impact of certain proposed activities to be assessed in the 1970s and 1980s. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required to ensure that environmental impacts are considered before certain developments and projects that are likely to have a detrimental affect on the environment are given approval. Environmental impact assessment often included a limited form of public consultation, an early recognition of the right of the public to participate in environmental decisions that might affect them. An environmental impact statement (EIS), usually prepared by the project proponent, is publicly displayed for a few weeks, and interested persons and organisations have the opportunity to make submissions about the proposal. The EIS and the public submissions are then assessed by a government authority – sometimes a local council, sometimes a government department – and a decision is made about whether the project should go ahead. Freedom of information legislation was also introduced into many countries as the right to know became established. This legislation covered the right to know about environmental matters with respect to government agencies and in the 1980s began to be applied in a limited way to information about polluting companies. Inventories of pollutants have been established in a number of countries, including the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Norway and Australia, as a contribution to fulfilling the public’s right to know. The right to participation, often interpreted as the right to be consulted, did not spread far beyond EIA until the 1990s, when various international agreements acknowledged its importance to achieving environmental goals.

The equity principle During the 1980s the concept of ecological sustainability was married with the idea of equity (or fairness), and particularly intergenerational equity, that is, the idea of justice and fairness to future generations. The 1980 World Conservation Strategy, produced by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in collaboration with the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, now the World Wide Fund for Nature), called for:

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the management of human use of the biosphere [the thin covering of the planet that sustains life] so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. (IUCN et al. 1980)

The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), otherwise known as the Brundtland Commission, which played such a prominent part in popularising the notion of sustainable development, defined it in equity terms as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED 1990: 85). The Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 reaffirmed the centrality of equity in its Rio Declaration. Since then the rhetoric of equity has been incorporated into numerous sustainable development strategies and policies.

Human rights principles It was not until the 1980s that the most important and basic principle for guiding human affairs, that of human rights, was seriously applied to environmental issues. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948, well before environmental concerns were as pressing as they later became, and does not specifically mention the environment. It has since become clear that environmental protection is necessary to support some of the most fundamental of human rights, such as the rights to life, health and wellbeing (UNHCHR 2002). Environmentally damaging activities that result in death, injury and disease obviously breach human rights. For example, ‘almost a fifth of all ill health in poor countries’, according to the World Bank, ‘can be attributed to environmental factors, including climate change and pollution’. Twelve million people die each year from contaminated water and inadequate sanitation. More than 2 million die from air contamination within their homes and 800 000 from outdoor urban air pollution. Some 4000 die from outdoor air contamination in the Brazilian cities of San Pablo and Rio de Janeiro alone (CEDHA 2002; Vidal 2005). It is clear from these statistics both that environmental protection is essential to safeguard human rights, and that human rights principles need to guide environmental policy. Other relevant human rights include a person’s ‘right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family’, the right to participate in governance decisions and, in later human rights documents, the right to self-determination and the right to peaceful enjoyment of property. In 1984 the OECD agreed that the right to a ‘decent’ environment was a fundamental human right (Bosselmann 2005). In 1994 the UN’s Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment proposed a Draft

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Principles on Human Rights and the Environment. These have yet to be adopted. The right to a healthy environment has nevertheless been incorporated into the constitutions of more than 90 nations since 1992.

POLICIES Environmental legislation The first wave of environmental legislation effectively reduced many of the most obvious sources of pollution in developed nations, and many of the most environmentally insensitive developments. However, by the late 1980s its shortcomings were becoming apparent, while local pollution events, such as medical waste washing up on New York beaches and sewage pollution on Sydney beaches, also contributed to the public perception of an environment in decline. Not only was the environment continuing to be degraded, but new global concerns such as ozone depletion and global warming were also emerging. The World Commission on Environment and Development noted in 1987: Each year another 6 million hectares of productive dryland turns into worthless desert … More than 11 million hectares of forests are destroyed yearly … In Europe, acid precipitation kills forests and lakes … The burning of fossil fuels puts into the atmosphere carbon dioxide, which is causing gradual global warming. This ‘greenhouse effect’ may by early next century have increased average global temperatures enough to shift agricultural production areas, raise sea levels to flood coastal cities, and disrupt national economies. Other industrial gases threaten to deplete the planet’s protective ozone shield to such an extent that the number of human and animal cancers would rise sharply and the oceans’ food chain would be disrupted. Industry and agriculture put toxic substances into the human food chain and into underground water tables beyond reach of cleansing. (WCED 1990)

The shortcomings of the first wave of legislation were partly due to the unwillingness of governments to risk economic growth and confront business. Enforcement of environmental legislation and standards in most nations had been particularly weak and regulatory agencies poorly resourced and staffed (Gunningham & Sinclair 2002: 31). To be effective, regulations need full political support so that regulatory agencies have the financial and human resources to monitor and enforce standards properly.

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Industry in many countries opposed environmental legislation, claiming the costs involved hindered economic development and detracted from the ability of private enterprise to operate efficiently and effectively. However, Douglas Costle (1981), an administrator of the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1970s, found that both industry and the EPA tended to overestimate rather than underestimate the costs of complying with environmental regulations. He tells of how the chemical industry overestimated the costs of a proposed vinyl chloride standard by two hundred times, and how the automobile industry overestimated the cost of a shoulder harness in a car by five times. There was also little evidence that environmental regulation had an adverse effect on the economy in general. The Pearce Report (Pearce et al. 1989: 26) found it difficult to locate examples of cases in which environmental regulations had hurt the competitive position of a country. Some business people admitted that environmental protection could bring benefits to industry by reducing costs for raw materials, energy, water and waste disposal. Nevertheless, most governments went out of their way to accommodate business interests. For example, when water pollution legislation and standards were established in New South Wales the government was careful to ensure that the legislation would ‘cause minimum hardship to industries and services which need to use areas of water for waste disposal’ (Sydney Morning Herald 12/3/69). There was, therefore, no goal of ridding the waterways of pollution – rather, the strategy was to keep pollution ‘to a level where it will cause the least possible harm’. In introducing the legislation the Minister said: ‘Where a degree of pollution is unavoidable because of the need to dispose of sewerage and industrial wastes, it is permitted in a controlled fashion designed to meet the needs of the community as a whole’ (Jago 1969).

Environmental concern peaks Worldwide, when public concern about the environment rose in the late 1980s, reinforced by scientific discoveries regarding phenomena such as ozone depletion and weather patterns that seemed to indicate that global warming had already begun, the obvious solution was to tighten environmental regulations. A 1989 New York Times/CBS poll found that 80 per cent of people surveyed agreed that ‘protecting the environment is so important that standards cannot be too high and continuing environmental improvements must be made regardless of cost’. Greens parties in Europe attracted 15 per cent of the vote. Sixteen per cent of Canadians surveyed said the environment was the most important problem in Canada – more important even than unemployment – and most people felt that solving

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environmental problems required government action. A poll in 1990 found that 67 per cent of Australians thought the government should ‘concentrate on protecting the environment even if it means some reduction in economic growth’ (Doern & Conway 1994: 118; McIntosh 1990; Rowell 1996: 22; Winward 1991: 107). The heightened public awareness of global and local environmental problems in many countries drew attention to the inadequacies of existing political, economic and regulatory structures. There were increasing demands from environmental and citizens groups for tightened environmental standards and for increased government control of private firms and corporations. Greens political groups challenged traditional political parties with varying degrees of electoral success. In response to this public pressure, regulatory agencies in various countries got tougher and new laws were enacted. In the USA, environmental convictions recorded by the EPA reached a new peak in 1989, with half of those convicted receiving jail sentences. Environmental indictments by the Justice Department increased by 30 per cent in 1990 over the previous year (Harrison 1993: 6). In New South Wales, an Environmental Offences and Penalties Act, introduced in 1989, provided for jail terms and million-dollar fines for senior executives of polluting companies. The perceived environmental crisis brought with it calls for a new environmental ethic and changes in the moral values that govern the relationship between nature and humankind. It appeared as if the free market economic system was unable to provide economic growth and environmental protection. Business leaders feared that the environmental benevolence of the profit motive itself would be questioned, and that the corporations responsible for pollution would be labelled as villains.

Economic instruments It was in this political context of demands for a new environmental ethic, political change and tighter environmental regulations that business groups and economists looked for market solutions to environmental problems that would accommodate economic growth, harness and exonerate the profit motive, and avoid further legislation and regulation. They saw economic instruments as meeting these requirements. There are two main types of economic instrument. There are those that use prices to provide an incentive to reduce environmental impact, by way of imposing fees, charges and taxes. And there are those that create property rights for the use of environmental resources and a market in which those rights can be traded. Governments have traditionally favoured legislative instruments over economic instruments for achieving environmental policy.

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Economic instruments were at first thought to be too indirect and uncertain because they are aimed at altering the conditions in which decisions are made rather than directly prescribing decisions. Governments also believed that additional charges would fuel inflation and might have the undesirable distributional effect of most severely hitting low-income groups. They were additionally concerned that the public might see charges as giving companies a ‘right to pollute’ because they had ‘paid’ to do so. Businesses had also preferred direct regulation, partly because they feared that charges would increase their costs, and partly because of the perception that they would have more influence on legislation through negotiation and delaying tactics. The threat of a new wave of environmental regulations in the early 1990s caused businesses to rethink this preference, however. Business-funded conservative think tanks in the USA and other English-speaking nations, which were pro-market and anti-regulation, disparaged environmental legislation – labelling it ‘command and control’ – and recommended using the market to allocate scarce environmental resources like wilderness and clean air. They argued that legislation should be replaced with voluntary industry agreements, reinforced or newly created property rights, and economic incentives. The Washington-based Cato Institute, for example, stated that one of its main focuses in the area of natural resources was ‘dismantling the morass of centralized command-and-control environmental regulation and substituting in its place market-oriented regulatory structures …’ (Cato Institute 1995). According to the Heritage Foundation’s policy analyst, John Shanahan (1993), the free market is a conservation mechanism. He urged the use of markets and property rights ‘where possible to distribute environmental “goods” efficiently and equitably’ rather than legislation, arguing that ‘the longer the list of environmental regulations, the longer the unemployment lines’. Think-tank economists emphasised the importance of market processes in determining optimal resource use. Anderson and Leal (1991) argued that the political process is inefficient, that it doesn’t reach the optimal level of pollution where costs are minimised: If markets produce ‘too little’ clean water because dischargers do not have to pay for its use, then political solutions are equally likely to produce ‘too much’ clean water because those who enjoy the benefits do not pay the cost.

Under pressure from business groups and influenced by think tanks, various governments began to reassess the use of economic instruments

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as a supplement to direct regulation. They were concerned that tighter pollution control measures might inhibit economic growth. They believed that economic instruments could achieve environmental goals at less cost, providing new sources of finance and allowing industry to find its own cost-effective ways of reducing pollution. Another reason was dissatisfaction with the effectiveness of direct regulation and a perception – promoted by business groups – that industry would not stand for stricter regulations (OECD 1989: 24–5). The changing consensus wrought by conservatives meant that economic instruments, once associated with market economists and conservative bureaucrats, became widely accepted. Government sustainable development policies today embrace economic instruments and market policies. Such thinking has spread throughout the world. Over the last decade and a half, environmentalists in a variety of non-governmental and governmental organizations, multilateral financial institutions, and corporations have sought to fashion and to implement a new family of environmentalism based on markets, commodity flows, incentives, and the idea that people are fundamentally economic creatures. (Zerner 2000: 3)

But how well do these economic instruments and market-based policies fit with the basic environmental and social principles that have been developed over the last 50 years? This book seeks to examine these policies and evaluate them in terms of the six widely accepted principles described.

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PA RT I

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION PRINCIPLES

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THE SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLE

The idea that Earth has unlimited capacity to provide for human desires and absorb human wastes was undermined when the first pictures of the planet from outer space were published. The US Ambassador to the United Nations, Adlai Stevenson, stated in 1965: We travel together, passengers on a little spaceship, dependent on its vulnerable reserves of air and soil; all committed for our safety to its security and peace; preserved from annihilation only by the care, the work and, I will say, the love we give our fragile craft. (quoted in Hardin 1977)

In 1966 Kenneth E Boulding (1966), a professor of economics, used the same analogy in his classic essay, ‘The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth’. In it he described the actual economies of industrialised countries as ‘cowboy’ economies, ‘the cowboy being symbolic of the illimitable plains and also associated with reckless, exploitative, romantic, and violent behavior, which is characteristic of open societies’. He wrote of the need for a ‘spaceman’ economy which recognised the planet has limited supplies and a limited capacity to extract wastes. In this economy people would have to find their place ‘in a cyclical ecological system which is capable of continuous reproduction of material form’. While a cowboy economy maximises production and consumption as desirable goals, and success is attained by continually increasing the throughput of materials and energy, a spaceman economy tries to minimise throughput in a closed economy. In such an economy the aim would be to: • •

limit extraction and pollution decrease consumption

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• •

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continuously reproduce the material form increase stock maintenance – goods would be built to last as long as possible.

Economic success in a spaceman economy would be measured by the ‘nature, extent, quality, and complexity of the total capital stock, including in this the state of human bodies and minds’.

LIMITS TO GROWTH Early warnings In the late 1960s and early 1970s many scholars and thinkers observed that continual economic growth was causing environmental decline, and argued that it could not be sustained forever. One of the most famous studies done at this time was commissioned by the Club of Rome, which was formed in 1968 by scientists, educators, economists, humanists, industrialists and civil servants under the leadership of Italian businessman Aurelio Peccei. The study was undertaken by a team of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the USA and published as a book called The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al. 1972). The study used a computer model of the world economy to show that the existing exponential growth rates of population and economic activity could not continue indefinitely on a planet that had only limited natural resources and limited ability to deal with pollution. It found that: If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years. The most probable result will be a rather sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity. (Meadows et al. 1972: 23–4)

Although this has often been characterised as a doomsday scenario, the study was optimistic in its assertion that it ‘is possible to alter these growth trends and to establish a condition of ecological and economic stability that is sustainable far into the future’. The Limits to Growth ‘made headlines around the world and began a debate about the limits of the Earth’s capacity to support human economic expansion’ (Atkisson & Davis 2001: 165). It was translated into 29 languages, and 9 million copies were sold. While the idea of limits to growth appealed to the layperson’s common sense, it ‘seriously perturbed Western intellectuals’ and angered economists, conservatives and politicians alike, who viewed any criticism of economic growth as a

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direct attack on capitalism. Socialists, who were also attached to economic growth as essential for progress, disliked it as well (Ekins 1992: 270; Norgaard 2001: 167; Suter 1999). In the same year as The Limits to Growth was published, the magazine The Ecologist (Editors 1972) devoted an entire issue to arguing that economic growth could not continue into the future without disaster. Their argument was supported by 33 eminent academics. The issue was also published as a book – A Blueprint for Survival – which stated: The principal defect of the industrial way of life with its ethos of expansion is that it is not sustainable … By now it should be clear that the main problems of the environment do not arise from temporary and accidental malfunctions of existing economic and social systems. On the contrary, they are the warning signs of a profound incompatibility between deeply rooted beliefs in continuous growth and the dawning recognition of the earth as a space ship, limited in its resources and vulnerable to thoughtless mishandling.

In 1973 economist Herman Daly (1973) published a book of papers entitled Towards a Steady-State Economy. Daly, like Boulding, argued for an economy in which the numbers of people and goods were stable and the throughputs of materials and energy were restrained.

Backlash These publications and others unleashed a wave of controversy. There was a major counter-attack on the whole idea of limits to growth. Economists and others argued that technological change and the invisible hand of the market meant that there were no limits or, if there were limits to particular resources, humans could outsmart them by finding alternatives. One well-known response to the limits to growth thesis was The Doomsday Syndrome by John Maddox, the editor of Nature, a leading science journal. Maddox (1972: 21–2) argued that there was no forthcoming crisis, that environmental and associated problems could be and were being fixed through legislation and through scientific and technological innovation: Tiny though the earth may appear from the moon, it is in reality an enormous object. The atmosphere of the earth alone weighs more than 5,000 million million tons, more than a million tons of air for each human being now alive … It is not entirely out of the question that human intervention could at some stage bring changes, but for the time being the vast scale on which the earth is built should be a great comfort.

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Another well-known refutation came from economist Julian Simon, professor of business administration and senior fellow at the libertarian think tank, the Cato Institute. Simon (1981) wrote a book entitled The Ultimate Resource, in which he argued that human resourcefulness would ensure that resources would never run out because, if a particular resource became scarce, either new sources would be discovered, people would learn to do more with less, or substitutes would be found. A team of scientists at Sussex University re-ran the model used in The Limits to Growth but with the assumption that instead of there being absolute limits on food and resources, resources could be increased exponentially through discovery of new resources, recycling and pollution controls. Not surprisingly, they did not come up with the pessimistic results of the original model (cited in Ekins 1992: 270). One analyst noted that neither outcome was certain, and that what separated the resource optimists from the resource pessimists was that [the] optimist believes in the power of human inventiveness to solve whatever problems are thrown in its way, as apparently it has done in the past. The pessimist questions the success of those past technological solutions and fears that future problems may be more intractable. (Lecomber quoted in Ekins 1992: 270)

The pessimist also believes there are certain physical constraints that mean that resources cannot continue to grow exponentially, no matter how much recycling is achieved or how clever technology becomes (Ekins 1992: 272). Complete recycling, in fact, is not possible, since some materials are always lost through wear and tear, and corrosion and energy are required to make the transformation from waste product to new product. Moreover, according to limits-to-growth advocate Ted Trainer (1985), even if the pollution generated by manufacturing could be cut by 30 per cent, this gain to the environment would be soon lost if more manufacturing was undertaken as the result of economic growth. If the manufacturing sector grew at 3 per cent per year, it would only take 13 years before there was just as much pollution as before the cuts, and 23 years for there to be twice as much.

The merits of economic growth The debate was not only over the question of whether human ingenuity, the market and technological change could overcome the physical limits of the planet but also over the merits of economic growth. Herman Kahn (1989: 178–9), and the US Hudson Institute, argued that while economic growth might not be able to continue indefinitely, there was too much to gain from economic growth to attempt to reduce it in the shorter term:

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In our view, the application of a modicum of intelligence and good management in dealing with current problems can enable economic growth to continue for a considerable period of time, to the benefit, rather than to the detriment, of mankind. We argue that without such growth the disparities among nations so regretted today would probably never be overcome, that ‘no growth’ would consign the poor to indefinite poverty and increase the present tensions between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’.

Economic growth was put forward as the solution to problems such as poverty: the poor would be better off as the economy grew. Without such an argument politicians would have little answer to demands for more equitable redistribution of wealth (Norgaard 2001: 167). But economic growth does not necessarily eliminate poverty. The economic growth that has occurred worldwide over the last three decades has not decreased the poverty within developing nations; and the richest nations in the world still accommodate some of the poorest people. Much poverty results from distributional problems rather than from a nation’s lack of wealth. This was already evident in 1973 when the president of the World Bank, Robert McNamara, said that although the world had just experienced ten years of unprecedented economic growth, ‘the poorest segments of the population have received relatively little benefit … the upper 40 per cent of the population typically receive 75 per cent of all income’ (Sachs 1992a: 6) The need for growth in high-income countries was even more controversial. US economists Paul Barkley and David Seckler (1972: 18) wrote that: the more developed nations of the world have now reached a state where all reasonable and rational demands for economic goods have been or can be satisfied. As a result, the virtues of added economic growth may be an illusion because growth does not come free. In fact, the costs of added growth are climbing quite rapidly as the pressures against certain resources, and on the environment as a whole, increase. The developed countries may have reached a level at which the costs of additional growth in terms of labor and loss of environmental quality exceed the benefits …

Similarly, economist EJ Mishan (1967) argued that the costs of economic growth outweighed the benefits: The uglification of once handsome cities the world over continues unabated. Noise levels and gas levels are still rising and, despite the erection of concrete freeways over city centres, unending processions of motorised traffic lurch through its main thoroughfares. Areas of outstanding beauty are still being sacrificed to the tourist trade and traditional communities to the exigencies of ‘development’.

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Pollution of air, soil and oceans spreads over the globe … The upward movement in the indicators of social disintegration – divorce, suicide, delinquency, petty theft, drug taking, sexual deviance, crime and violence – has never faltered over the last two decades. (quoted in Ekins 1992: 273)

The limits to growth debate did cause more conservative economists ‘to incorporate natural resources and pollution’ into their growth models. Such models had completely ignored the ecological basis of production before this time. However, the technological optimism of the 1980s came to dominate economic thinking, and faith in the ability of markets and technological change to overcome natural limits was reaffirmed in economic circles (England 2000: 425–6). In 1980 the administration of US President Carter published a report entitled Global 2000 which predicted that ‘if policy everywhere continued unchanged, the world in 2000 would be more crowded, more polluted, less stable ecologically and more vulnerable to disruption than the world in 1980’. As one of the report’s authors noted at the end of 2000, ‘this conclusion has, unfortunately, met the test of time’ (Barney 2000). Initially, however, the trend seemed to be more hopeful. The oil crisis of 1973 provided a large incentive for companies, governments and individuals to use energy more efficiently, and between 1973 and 1985 the intensity of energy use declined in most developed nations while economic growth continued. This was taken as proof that economic growth and resource use were not linked (Ekins 1992: 275). The limits-to-growth argument was readily dismissed during the 1980s, even by many environmentalists. This was partly due to the exaggerated pessimism of some of the early writers, who had prophesied imminent disaster that did not occur (at least in the short term); partly due to their focus on the depletion of resources such as oil and minerals rather than environmental degradation; and partly due to the success of well-financed think tanks in refuting their arguments. The debates over whether there were limits to growth were no longer found in the mainstream discourse of the 1980s.

SUSTAINABILITY IN THE 1980s Sustainable development In the 1980s the idea that continuous economic growth could not be ecologically sustainable was replaced by the notion of ‘sustainable development’, which argued that ways could be found to sustain economic

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growth without creating too much pollution or environmental degradation. The gloom and doom scenario was replaced with one of optimistic faith. The environmentalists of the 1970s had used the term ‘sustainability’ to refer to systems in equilibrium: they argued that exponential growth was not sustainable, in the sense that it could not be continued forever because the planet and its resources were finite. In contrast, sustainable development sought ways to make economic growth sustainable, mainly through technological change. In 1982, the British government began using the term ‘sustainability’ to refer to sustainable economic expansion rather than sustainable use of natural resources. Many of the ideas associated with sustainable development were articulated in the 1980 World Conservation Strategy (cited in the Introduction), which argued that while development aimed to achieve human goals through the use of the biosphere, conservation aimed to achieve those same goals by ensuring that use of the biosphere could continue indefinitely. National conservation strategies based on this World Conservation Strategy were adopted in 50 countries. The Australian National Conservation Strategy, like many others, argued that development and conservation were different expressions of the one process and that economic growth could be achieved through a more appropriate use of resources. It called for sustainable modes of development, a new international economic order, a new environmental ethic and population stabilisation (DHAE 1984) – but the World Conservation Strategy and its national equivalents had little impact on the wider public or on national policies. In the mid-1980s, however, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1990) rejuvenated the concept of sustainable development in its report Our Common Future (also referred to as the Brundtland Report, after the commission’s chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland, who was prime minister of Norway at the time). In October 1987, the goal of sustainable development was largely accepted by the governments of one hundred nations and approved in the UN General Assembly. The Commission defined sustainable development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

Promoting economic growth In the foreword to the report Bruntland said, ‘What is needed now is a new era of economic growth – growth that is forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable’ (WCED 1990: xvi). This call for economic growth was made in the name of the developing coun-

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tries, but the notion that affluent nations might reduce their own growth to make room for the growth of poorer nations was not entertained. Jim MacNeill (1989: 106), secretary-general to the Brundtland Commission, argued that: the most urgent imperative of the next few decades is further rapid growth. A fivefold to tenfold increase in economic activity would be required over the next 50 years in order to meet the needs and aspirations of a burgeoning world population, as well as to begin to reduce mass poverty. If such poverty is not reduced significantly and soon, there really is no way to stop the accelerating decline in the planet’s stocks of basic capital: its forests, soils, species, fisheries, waters and atmosphere.

Although the Brundtland definition of sustainable development is the one that is most often quoted, there are many other definitions of sustainable development, and while it has been argued that interest groups define sustainable development to suit their own goals, they are nearly all premised on the assumed compatibility of economic growth and environmental protection. Sustainable development aims to achieve economic growth by increasing productivity without increasing natural resource use too much. The key to this is technological change. The Australian Commission for the Future (Commission for the Future 1990: 27) argued: Rather than growth or no-growth, as the debate about environment and development has sometimes been cast, the central issue is what kind of growth. The challenge of sustainable development is to find new products, processes, and technologies which are environmentally friendly while they deliver the things we want.

Instead of being the villains as they were in the 1970s, technology and industry were now seen to provide the solutions to environmental problems. The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC 1990) launched a Business Charter for Sustainable Development that stated: Economic growth provides the conditions in which protection of the environment can be achieved, and environmental protection, in balance with other human goals, is necessary to achieve growth that is sustainable. In turn, versatile, dynamic, responsive and profitable businesses are required as the driving force for sustainable economic development and for providing managerial, technical and financial resources to contribute to the resolution of environmental challenges …

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Business thus shares the view that there should be a common goal, not a conflict, between economic development and environmental protection, both now and for future generations.

The conflict between economic growth and environmental protection was thus being denied, even when energy use per unit of GDP began to increase again in the late 1980s. The concept of sustainable development enabled a new breed of professional environmentalists to partner with economists, politicians, business people and others to achieve common goals rather than confronting each other over whether economic growth should be encouraged or discouraged. By avoiding the debate over limits to growth, sustainable development provided a compromise that on the face of it suited everyone. More radical environmentalists continued to resist this win-win mentality, Wolfgang Sachs (1992b: 21), for example, arguing that by ‘translating an indictment of growth into a problem of conserving resources, the conflict between growth and environment has been defused and turned into a managerial exercise’ that forces development planners to consider nature.

CARRYING CAPACITY While the concept of a limit to economic and population growth is seldom found in recent economic or political texts, it is still alive in ecology and environmental science where, rather than being discussed in terms of limits to growth, ecological sustainability is discussed in terms of carrying capacity and ecological footprints. The idea of carrying capacity comes from animal husbandry and ecology. It refers to: the maximum number of a species that can be supported indefinitely by a particular habitat, allowing for seasonal and random changes, without degradation of the environment and without diminishing carrying capacity in the future. (Hardin 1977)

Resources can be renewable, conditionally renewable, fixed or nonrenewable. Resources such as water, timber and food can be renewable if not overused. Resources such as fish and soil are conditionally renewable, that is, these resources are currently being overused in some cases and therefore are close to not being renewable. Resources such as land are fixed in quantity and once used for one purpose, often cannot be used for

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another. Then there are non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and minerals (ECOTEC–UK 2001: 2–3). Global human carrying capacity is generally calculated by choosing one of the limiting resources – land, energy, biota – and estimating how much there is of it in the world and how many people that it will support. Garrett Hardin (1977) promoted the use of the concept for human populations, noting that ‘carrying capacity is a time-bound, posterityoriented concept’. He pointed out that when animals exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat the environment is rapidly degraded and the animals ‘become skinny and feeble; they succumb easily to diseases. The normal instincts of the species become ineffectual as starving animals struggle with one another for individual survival’. Hardin (1986) later argued that although carrying capacity could not be accurately determined and there were inevitably differences of opinion about it, the concept should nevertheless be taken seriously because exceeding carrying capacity results in ‘serious and, more often than not, irreversible’ consequences, that is, irreversible ‘on the time scale of human history’: Because transgression is so serious a matter, the conservative approach is to stay well below the best estimate of carrying capacity. Such a policy may well be viewed by profit-motivated people as a waste of resources, but this complaint has no more legitimacy than complaints against an engineer’s conservative estimate of the carrying capacity of a bridge. Even if our concern is mere profit, in the long run the greatest economic gain comes from taking safety factors and carrying capacities seriously.

Cultural carrying capacity For people, carrying capacity goes beyond merely populations and the resources necessary to feed them. Humans require quality foods beyond subsistence, clothing that is more than just functional, comfortable housing, transportation, heating, and other items that constitute a reasonable standard of living. Hardin (1986) referred to this as ‘cultural carrying capacity’. While many more people could be supported by the Earth if they subsisted on a minimum of food and not extras, this would be neither desirable, nor a socially stable situation (Richard 2002). The impact of humans on the environment, as noted by Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren (1971: 1212–7), is a combination of population, resource use per person (affluence) and environmental damage per unit of resource used (technology) (see figure 1.1 on the next page).

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Figure 1.1 The factors determining environmental impact

Environmental Impact

=

Number of people

x

Resource use per person

x

Environmental impact per unit of resource used

population affluence technology

Because humans are consuming more resources per person each year, the ‘world is being required to accommodate not just more people, but effectively “larger” people …’ (Catton quoted in Rees 1996). The planet not only has to provide a life-support system for its human population but also has to support our industrial metabolism, which in turn requires natural resources as inputs and produces outputs that must go back into the environment. William Rees (1996) cites rising daily energy consumption as an example: in 1790 the average American used 11 000 kcal of energy compared with 210 000 kcal used by the average person in 1980, some 20 times more. Rees defines human carrying capacity as: the maximum rates of resource harvesting and waste generation (the maximum load) that can be sustained indefinitely without progressively impairing the productivity and functional integrity of relevant ecosystems wherever the latter may be located. The size of the corresponding population would be a function of technological sophistication and mean per capita material standards.

Technological solutions The resources required to produce a reasonable standard of living have varied throughout human history. Economists still argue that technological change and international trade will ensure that there are always enough resources to meet cultural or human carrying capacity. They argue that humanity can in fact increase carrying capacity through technological innovation, for example, by increasing the food that can be obtained from a given area of land through the use of synthetic fertilisers. If a resource runs out, people will find another way of meeting their needs. In other words, ‘necessity is the mother of invention’.

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Technology can change the amount and type of resources that are required to produce a reasonable standard of living. But the technologies that extend carrying capacity often come at a price. For example, the agri-chemicals used to increase crop yields have significant environmental impacts. Our ability to continue to increase the carrying capacity of the planet may therefore be limited – and there seems to be evidence that such limits are already being reached (see below). Modern advocates of the concept of carrying capacity still argue against economic growth: Our dominant culture continues to celebrate expansion in spite of its heavy toll on people and nature. In fact, we desperately try to ignore that much of today’s income stems from liquidating our social and natural assets. We fool ourselves into believing that we can disregard ecological limits indefinitely. (Chambers et al. 2000: 47)

Rees (1996) argues that when technology makes resource use more efficient, it may encourage greater use rather than result in less use. For example, as energy use became more efficient, more energy, not less, was used because we used it for more things. Technological changes that enhance productivity often result in increased exploitation of natural resources. For example, modern fishing technologies enable catches to be increased and depletion of fish stocks to be accelerated (see chapter 14).

Biological diversity One of the consequences of exceeding human carrying capacity is the loss of biological diversity. Biological diversity (or biodiversity) refers to the variety of ecosystems and species of plants and animals that is found in nature. There are three levels at which biodiversity is important: the gene, the species and the ecosystem. Jeffrey McNeely and his colleagues (1990: 17) describe these levels: Genetic diversity is the sum total of genetic information, contained in the genes of individual plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the earth. Species diversity refers to the variety of living organisms on earth and has been variously estimated to be between 5 and 50 million or more, though only about 1.4 million have actually been described. Ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere, as well as the tremendous diversity within ecosystems in terms of habitat differences and variety of ecological processes.

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When people talk about preserving biodiversity they generally mean that a full and diverse range of plant and animal species should be maintained. It has been argued that current human activities are causing the mass extinction of species at a rate never before experienced. Several species become extinct each day, while scientists estimate that the extinction rate in pre-human times was just a few species per thousand years. In the past, technologies were relatively harmless, and population patterns and cultural customs and taboos prevented overexploitation, so species were less likely to be under threat. The rate of extinction of native mammal species in Australia today is particularly high compared with other countries. As in other countries, extinction has been caused by the removal of forests and bushland for agriculture, forestry and urban development; competition from introduced and cultivated plants and animals; and pollution of and changes to waterways. The state of species worldwide is shown in table 1.1. Table 1.1 Numbers of extinct and threatened species in 2004 Species extinct Birds Plants Mammals Insects Amphibians Reptiles Crustaceans Fish

133 110 77 60 35 22 8

Total number described

Species threatened

9917 187 655 5416 15000 5743 8163 40 000 28 500

1213 8321 1101 559 1856 304 429 800

Percentage of species threatened 12 3 20 0.06 32 4 1 3

Source (Baillie et al. 2004: 7; Worldwatch Institute 2005)

Environmentalists argue that the destruction and modification of habitats that results from economic activity is threatening the ability of life forms to evolve and therefore to survive through adaptation. They differentiate between conservation, which means maintaining the ability of species to evolve, and preservation, which provides only for the maintenance of individuals or groups of species, not for their evolutionary change. Preservation considers the setting aside of representative samples of biodiversity to be all that is required (Harris 1991: 8).

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ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT The ecological footprint, a different way of expressing carrying capacity, was developed by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees in the early 1990s. Instead of working out how many people a particular area can take, the idea is to work out how much land and water is necessary to support a particular human population – a nation, a city, a company, a product, or even an individual – given their current levels of technology and consumption. This water and land – divided into categories such as arable, pasture, built or degraded – is not necessarily all in one place but may be spread all over the globe (Chambers et al. 2000: 60–3). The Ecological Footprint is a tool for measuring and analyzing human natural resource consumption and waste output within the context of nature’s renewable and regenerative capacity (or biocapacity). It represents a quantitative assessment of the biologically productive area (the amount of nature) required to produce the resources (food, energy, and materials) and to absorb the wastes of an individual, city, region, or country. (Venetoulis et al. 2004: 7)

Such analyses highlight the way that human populations, particularly cities, are dependent on environments well beyond their political boundaries. It also shows that the area of land and water outside their boundaries necessary to support them – the appropriated carrying capacity – is getting larger and larger. To be sustainable the ecological footprint must remain within the Earth’s limits. If those limits are exceeded – a situation called ‘overshoot’ – then resources are used faster than they can be renewed, the environment becomes degraded and the ability of Earth to sustain life and economic activity is further reduced (Rees 1996; Venetoulis et al. 2004: 7). In 2000 a joint analysis of national ecological footprints by WWF International and Redefining Progress found that although the footprint per person had been falling over the previous 20 years because of increased efficiencies in resource use, the total footprint had been increasing (Venetoulis et al. 2004: 7–8). More recent studies show that humanity’s ecological footprint had exceeded the planet’s ecological limits by the 1980s and is continuing to rise. As a result there is evidence of major environmental degradation in every part of the world and land-use conflicts – for example, between agriculture, mining, urbanisation and forests – are increasing as land becomes more scarce (Chambers et al. 2000: 38–9).

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Box 1.1 Glossary of ecological footprint terms Appropriated Carrying Capacity: The biophysical resource flows and waste assimilation capacity appropriated per unit time from global totals by a defined economy or population. Ecological Footprint: The corresponding area of productive land and aquatic ecosystems required to produce the resources used, and to assimilate the wastes produced, by a defined population at a specified material standard of living, wherever on Earth that land may be located. Fair Earthshare: the amount of ecologically productive land ‘available’ per capita on Earth, currently about 2.2 hectares (2000). A fair seashare (ecologically productive ocean – coastal shelves, upwellings and estuaries – divided by total population) is just over .5 ha. Ecological Deficit: The level of resource consumption and waste discharge by a defined economy or population in excess of locally/regionally sustainable natural production and assimilative capacity (also, in spatial terms, the difference between that economy/population’s ecological footprint and the geographic area it actually occupies). Sustainability Gap: A measure of the decrease in consumption (or the increase in material and economic efficiency) required to eliminate the ecological deficit. (Can be applied on a regional or global scale.) Source (Rees 1996)

Partial measure Footprint analysis is generally a conservative estimate, that is, it tends to understimate the amount of land and water required to support human populations. It does not take account of toxic pollutants; in fact, the only pollutant it generally considers is carbon dioxide. Nor does it take account of species extinctions although it sometimes includes an allowance for natural habitats. It does not take account of the scarcity of different types of land. It cannot deal with details such as whether land in a region is farmed sustainably or unsustainably, or of where in the

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world the impact of overshoot is felt. It includes the use of non-renewable resources only by taking account of the land and energy associated with mining, processing and consumption, but does not consider their exhaustibility. It does not address social issues such as income distribution, education or unemployment. It ‘intentionally says nothing about people’s quality of life’ and it does not analyse who is responsible for a community’s increasing footprint (Chambers et al. 2000: 31; ECOTEC – UK 2001: 17, 27; Lenzen & Murray 2001: 230; Venetoulis et al. 2004: 8; Wackernagel et al. 2002: 9268). Ecological footprint analysis is merely a rough measure of how much land is required for particular populations, based on current management and production practices and levels of consumption, to: • • • • • •

grow crops for food, animal feed, fibre, oil, and rubber; graze animals for meat, hides, wool and milk; harvest timber for wood, fibre and fuel; fish for food; accommodate infrastructure for housing, transportation, industrial production and hydro-electric power; absorb carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels (Wackernagel et al. 2002: 9267).

Analysis at the national level ‘uses UN data on agricultural production, forest production, area of built land and trade’ and trade data to take account of what is imported and exported (ECOTEC – UK 2001: 17–8). Analysts Mathis Wackernagel and his colleagues (2002: 9266) admit: We recognize that reducing the complexity of humanity’s impact on nature to appropriated biomass offers only a partial assessment of global sustainability. It is a necessary, but not sufficient, requirement that human demand does not exceed the globe’s biological capacity as measured by our accounts.

Advocates also recognise that the measure ‘provides a utilitarian view of nature – nature as a big bucket filled with resources – and measures who gets what’ (Chambers et al. 2000: 31–2). In addition, ecological footprint analysis is based on current actual use of technology rather than potential use of technology. Its advocates state: While some technologies exist to reduce human impact, most technology has been used to gain access to limited resources at a faster rate and with more ease. In other words, while we have the technological capacity for a sustainable world, we seem to choose technologies that increase our overall footprint and increase human overshoot. (Chambers et al. 2000: 115)

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The estimates of footprints for particular nations, done by different experts, vary quite considerably, although not by whole orders of magnitude. Nevertheless the simplicity of the concept enables people to easily understand it, and analysts are generally open about their assumptions and omissions. It is based on publicly available government information. As such it provides an alternative measure of human progress to economic measures such as GDP, and emphasises the principle of ecological sustainability (ECOTEC–UK 2001: 30; Wackernagel et al. 2002: 9267). The concept of ecological footprint has been criticised for reducing the value of land, and therefore ecosystems, down to productive capacity alone, and ignoring other environmental values such as diversity and beauty. It has also been criticised for implying that environmental protection is an individual responsibility; that each person is to blame for their own footprint and can reduce it by consuming less: This obscures the institutional and economic factors that constrain our choices, and that make it difficult to cut our own footprint down to size, even if we wish to. The problem is perpetuated in footprint analyses of nations, provinces and cities because the products of such analyses are usually interpreted in terms of the aggregated consumption behaviour of individuals. (Bocking 2004)

Rees (2002: 276) notes in response to criticisms that it would be unrealistic to expect any single measure to ‘represent the total human impact on the ecosphere’. Nevertheless, ecological footprint analysis ‘is comprehensive enough to show, unambiguously, that the human eco-footprint on Earth is steadily increasing’.

Fair share Ecological footprint analysis enables the resource use of different populations to be compared and for those that are clearly unsustainable to be identified, that is, those that use more land than they own or more than their fair share of land. By considering the footprint of each nation, the disparities between nations become evident. The USA has the largest footprint per person of all nations (9.57 hectares) and various European nations and Australia are in the top ten (see table 1.2). These figures compare with the footprints of the poorest countries at 0.5 to 1 hectare per person, an average of around 2.2 hectares per person, and a sustainable footprint of 1.7 hectares per person, a figure most nations exceed (Venetoulis et al. 2004: 12; Wackernagel et al. 1997).

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Table 1.2 Ecological footprint of ten heaviest nations Country

Footprint (global hectares per capita)

USA United Arab Emirates Canada Norway New Zealand Kuwait Sweden Australia Finland France

9.57 8.97 8.56 8.17 8.13 8.01 7.95 7.09 7.00 5.74

Source (Venetoulis et al. 2004: 12)

Although the United Kingdom does not make the top ten, London’s ecological footprint, at 5.8 global hectares per person, is amongst the highest, and means that an area twice the size of Great Britain is required to support the city (Edie News 2005). This is the case for all large cities: ‘However brilliant its economic star, every city is an entropic black hole drawing on the concentrated material resources and low-entropy production of a vast and scattered hinterland many times the size of the city itself’ (Wackernagel quoted in ISEE 1994). Through such analysis of national ecological footprints, it becomes obvious that some countries are using more than their fair share of resources. Rees (1996) concludes that since affluent nations would need to use even more of their fair share of ecological space to achieve economic growth, to do so ‘is both ecologically dangerous and morally questionable. To the extent we can create room for growth, it should be allocated to the third world’. Other measures of human impact on the environment have been developed. One index, for example, measures the proportion of the planet’s net primary production devoted to human use, where net primary production is: [the] net amount of solar energy converted to plant organic matter through photosynthesis … Human appropriation of net primary production, apart from leaving less for other species to use, alters the composition of the atmosphere, levels of biodiversity, energy flows within food webs and the provision of important ecosystem services. (Imhoff et al. 2004: 870)

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This and other indexes also show that humans, particularly those in affluent countries, are overshooting the carrying capacity of the planet.

Consequences of overshoot The consequences of overshoot, that is, the way humans are exceeding the capacity of the environment to sustain their impact, are evident in the UN’s Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Reid et al. 2005), written by some 1360 scientists from 95 countries. The Assessment found that not only are humans already consuming ecosystems at an unsustainable rate and therefore degrading them, but that consumption is likely to increase by 3 to 6 times by 2050: First, approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services examined during the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment are being degraded or used unsustainably, including fresh water, capture fisheries, air and water purification, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural hazards, and pests … Second, there is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made in ecosystems are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems (including accelerating, abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes) that have important consequences for human well-being.

CONTINUING DEBATE The optimism of the 1980s that ecological limits could be overcome is as easy to refute as the predictions of imminent catastrophe of the 1970s. It is becoming increasingly clear that the environment is deteriorating and that rather than depletion of resources providing the limits to growth, it is the pollution and environmental degradation resulting from everincreasing production and consumption that is the real threat to the planet’s future. In 1996, respected economist Robert U Ayres (1996: 117) said, ‘I have changed my view radically … Today I have deep misgivings about economic growth per se.’ His reasoning was as follows: [E]vidence is growing that economic growth (such as it is) in the western world today is benefiting only the richest people alive now, at the expense of nearly everybody else, especially the poor and the powerless in this and future generations. To those who follow us we

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are bequeathing a more and more potent technology and significant investment in productive machinery and equipment and infrastructure. But these benefits may not compensate for a depleted natural resource base, a gravely damaged environment and a broken social contract.

It is theoretically possible that economic growth could be achieved without additional impacts on the environment, but this would mean many activities that might otherwise provide economic growth would have to be forgone – which will not happen while priority is given to achieving economic growth. Whether they believe economic growth and environmental protection are compatible, almost everyone agrees that there will inevitably be situations in which the goals of economic growth and environmental protection are irreconcilable and choices will have to be made. Also, as Paul Ekins (1992: 280–1) noted in his review of the shift from limits to growth to sustainable development, whether one is a technological optimist or pessimist, the technological changes that are necessary require ‘adoption of ecological sustainability as the principle economic objective in place of economic growth’. Further Reading Chambers, N, C Simmons & M Wackernagel (2000) Sharing Nature’s Interest: Ecological Footprints as an Indicator of Sustainability, Earthscan, London. Ekins, P (1992) ‘Limits to growth’ and ‘sustainable development’: grappling with ecological realities, Ecological Economics, 8: 269–88. Hardin, Garrett (1986) Cultural carrying capacity: a biological approach to human problems, Die Off Web Site, viewed 15 March 2006, Meadows, DH, DL Meadows, J Randers & WW Behrens (1972) The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind, Pan, London. Rees, WE (1996) Revisiting carrying capacity: area-based indicators of sustainability, Population and Environment, 17(3). Reid, WV et al. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, Island Press, Washington DC. Wackernagel, M, NB Schulz, D Deumling, A Callejas Linares, M Jenkins, V Kapos, C Monfreda, J Loh, N Myers, R Norgaard, & J Randers (2002) Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy, PNAS, 99(14): 9266–71.

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THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE

In the past, companies which have polluted have not paid the cost of that pollution. They have been allowed to discharge pollutants into the air and water while others bear the consequences. ‘When companies are allowed to pollute, or to use natural resources without paying their full price, they are in effect appropriating natural capital – land, air, and water – without compensation to society at large’ (Templet 2001: 2). The resulting pollution or resource depletion is called an ‘externality’ by economists because it is a cost that is external to the company’s accounts and external to the market transactions the company is involved in. The polluter pays principle (PPP) seeks to change this, so that a company has to either pay to prevent the pollution or pay for the damage (or for remediating the damage) that it causes. This does not mean that the polluter necessarily has to pay money to the government or to others, merely that they should pay for the appropriate pollution control measures to prevent pollution or for the clean-up if they fail to do so (JWPTE 2002: 9). Governments can ensure that the polluter pays by: •

•

•

regulating what polluters are able to discharge into the environment, so that they have to install their own pollution control equipment; charging polluters taxes and levies to cover government costs of protecting the environment, including the cost of sewage treatment facilities; making polluters liable for the damage they cause.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development The 1972 OECD Council recommendation on guiding principles for economic aspects of environmental policies stated:

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The principle to be used for allocating costs of pollution prevention and control measures to encourage rational use of scarce environmental recourses and to avoid distortions in international trade and investment is the so-called ‘Polluter-Pays Principle’. This principle means that the polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out the above-mentioned measures decided by public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state. In other words, the cost of these measures should be reflected in the cost of goods and services which cause pollution in production and/or consumption. Such measures should not be accompanied by subsidies that would create significant distortions in international trade and investment. (quoted in JWPTE 2002: 9)

The PPP was never supposed to be a way for polluters to pay to be allowed to pollute; the OECD intended it as a way to get the polluter to both ‘limit their pollution and bear the cost of measures taken to that end’ (JWPTE 2002: 12). OECD guidelines allowed exceptions to the PPP in the form of government subsidies for the research and development of new pollution control technologies and for pollution control infrastructure for regions or industries experiencing severe difficulties. The OECD Recommendation on the Polluter-Pays Principle (OECD 1974) also allowed that: In exceptional circumstances, such as the rapid implementation of a compelling and especially stringent pollution control regime, socioeconomic problems may develop of such significance as to justify consideration of the granting of government assistance, if the environmental policy objectives of a Member country are to be realised within a prescribed and specific time.

In each case the subsidies had to be selectively applied, temporary, and ‘not create significant distortions in international trade and development’. The OECD noted that financial incentives (payments made to induce polluters to reduce their emissions) were not compatible with the PPP (JWPTE 2002: 17). Towards the end of the 1980s the PPP was extended to include accidental pollution, not just routine pollution. In 1989 the OECD (1989b) published a Recommendation on the Application of the Polluter-Pays Principle to Accidental Pollution. The recommendation covers both the cost of specific measures associated with particular hazardous installations and general costs associated with accidental pollution which would be covered by fees and taxes on hazardous installations, including ‘reasonable measures’ taken by government authorities to prevent, prepare for and deal with accidents. These measures include:

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• • • •

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improving the safety of hazardous installations and accident preparedness; developing emergency plans; protecting human health and the environment following an accident; cleaning up and minimising ecological damage following an accident.

International acceptance The PPP is now an accepted principle underlying the environmental policies of many countries including OECD countries. In Canada the polluter pays principle is ‘enshrined in the preamble to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999’ and is ‘firmly entrenched’ in its environmental laws at both federal and provincial levels (Canadian Supreme Court quoted in Buttigieg & Fernando 2003: 2). The PPP was first included in European agreements in 1973 as part of the European Community Action Programme on the Environment, which stated that the ‘cost of preventing and eliminating nuisances must in principle be borne by the polluter’. It was incorporated into the Treaty Establishing the European Community in 1987 and the Maastricht Treaty. In its latest Environmental Action Programme, Environment 2010: Our Future, Our Choice, the EC commits to the PPP (Coffey & Newcombe 2001: 1–4). The PPP has also been incorporated into the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21 and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of Implementation, as well as various international agreements including: •

• • • •

1985 ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1990 Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (OPRC) 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents 1996 London Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

Some agreements, including the OECD agreements, are non-binding but others, including the Porto Agreement creating a European Economic Area and the Oslo and Paris Conventions on marine pollution, make implementation of the PPP compulsory for all nations which are party to the agreements (Smets 1994: 132). It was observed in the 1990s that there was no evidence that the implementation of the PPP over its first 20 years had had any negative impact on economic growth, inflation, international trade or balance of payments.

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In fact, ‘in countries with strict environmental standards, low subsidies and a high degree of dependence on international trade, technological progress in pollution control was rapid and profitable’, as could be seen in the case of the Japanese motor vehicle industry (Juhasz 1993: 42–3).

Defining pollution During the 1970s, pollution in the context of the PPP referred to waste products that were put into the air and water, but by 2002 the OECD (quoted in JWPTE 2002: 11) had expanded the definition of pollution to: the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystems, and impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment.

The definition of pollution was later broadened to cover many types of environmental damage, not just those caused by the discharge of contaminants. The EC (2004: 59) defines ‘environmental damage’ as: (a) damage to protected species and natural habitats, which is any damage that has significant adverse effects on reaching or maintaining the favourable conservation status of such habitats or species … (b) water damage, which is any damage that significantly adversely affects the ecological, chemical and/or quantitative status and/or ecological potential … of the waters concerned … (c) land damage, which is any land contamination that creates a significant risk of human health being adversely affected as a result of the direct or indirect introduction, in, on or under and, of substances, preparations, organisms or microorganisms.

The EC and the OECD define pollution by its impact on the environment and human health, rather than in terms of compliance with government regulations. This raises the question of whether a company that complies with environmental regulations and standards set by government authorities should bear the costs of its pollution. Nicolas de Sadeleer (2002: 40) argues that the definition of pollution should be independent of what may or may not be legal. He argues that this is a fair approach because polluters are responsible for their discharges, even if a government body authorises them, otherwise the public would have to bear the costs of clean-up when government regulations are inadequate. Given that companies have a direct influence on

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the limits and standards which governments set or don’t set, when government regulation allows too much pollution it is often because of industry pressure. Defining pollution by its impact rather than by government-set standards is also appropriate, according to de Sadeleer, because it provides polluters with an incentive to do better than government-set standards. It is legally coherent because it fits with civil liability, which requires pollution to be ‘evaluated from the perspective of the requirement of duty of care owed by the liable party, whether or not he respected the standards incumbent upon him’. Being allowed to pollute by the government should not absolve a polluter from liability. The issue of what environmental impacts are deleterious or impair and interfere (as in the OECD definition of damage), and how deleterious an impact should be before it has to be paid for or prevented, is not defined by the PPP and remains both a scientific and a political question. However, some legislation does attempt to define significant damage, and the EC has developed criteria for deciding if damage is significant (EC 2004).

Defining the polluter As the definition of pollution was broadened, so the definition of polluter became ‘someone who directly or indirectly damages the environment or who creates conditions leading to such damage’ (quoted in JWPTE 2002: 11). In 1989, when the PPP was extended to cover accidental pollution, the polluter became someone who might cause pollution in the future rather than being limited to someone who was already polluting or had done so in the past (de Sadeleer 2002: 41). However, the question of responsibility for environmental damage is not always so clear cut. Is the polluter the person who disposes of waste in the environment or the person who creates the waste or the person who produces the product that will become waste after use? ‘The person in charge of the installation, the manufacturer of the defective plant, and the licence-holder or his representatives may all be liable for pollution.’ And what about situations where there are multiple sources of pollution? In this case the regulatory authority might prefer to apply the PPP ‘at the point where the number of economic operators is least and control is easiest’. For example, where agricultural chemicals are polluting an area, the authority may target the manufacturer of the chemicals rather than every farmer who has used them (de Sadeleer 2002: 41–2).

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FUNCTIONS OF THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE The PPP is merely a means of allocating costs, and on its own does not necessarily result in reduced pollution – although this may occur. Although the PPP was originally formulated to combat trade distortions, it also became a means of distributing some of the profits made from products which caused pollution back to the government authorities and regulatory agencies whose job it was to control and prevent pollution. The charges covered the cost of monitoring and inspecting and regulating pollution.

PPP in the strict sense At first the polluter pays principle was only applied to the costs of pollution prevention and control, as required by government regulation. This was PPP ‘in a strict sense’ or ‘standard’ PPP. The polluter pays principle ‘in a strict sense’ includes costs of pollution control equipment, the cost of government provision of pollution removal infrastructure and services and, in some cases, the administrative costs of government in overseeing pollution control (‘measurement, surveillance, supervision, inspection etc.’). PPP ‘in a strict sense’ sometimes covers the cost of clean-up as well, including cleaning up after an accidental spill or longterm routine pollution (JWPTE 2002: 12). Such payments could be seen by some polluters as legitimising the pollution, in other words, that they were paying to be allowed to pollute. Government charges were not much of a disincentive when they were viewed as just another tax on the production process and simply incorporated into the cost of the final goods. So PPP charges had to be accompanied by standards and regulations that limited allowable discharges. Nations can have differing environmental standards and thus the amount that a firm has to pay to keep pollution within those standards will vary. Within the OECD, for example, it is accepted that national standards will differ according to different social objectives, differing assumptions about local assimilative capacity, differing population densities, and how industrialised a region is (Juhasz 1993: 38). Under these conditions, lower environmental standards became essentially a form of subsidy, provided at the expense of the local environment, to local firms in a competitive international market, since those firms didn’t have to pay to keep their pollution within the higher standards expected in other countries. In general, polluters paid only part of the costs of pollution, as regulations never required all pollution to be prevented, just that a specified environmental standard be met. Environmental damage continued to occur despite the standards and charges.

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PPP in the broad sense During the 1990s, the idea of putting limits on discharges fell out of favour. Under pressure from industry, many governments began to adopt an approach whereby pollution would be controlled, not by government-imposed limits, but by charges and fees that would provide an incentive for companies to voluntarily reduce their emissions. It was believed that it would be more efficient if environmental goals were met by internalising the full costs of pollution, thereby providing incentives for polluters to reduce their pollution in the most efficient way and for consumers to use the products more efficiently because they cost more: ‘Prices which fail to incorporate costs resulting from environmental damage may lead to inefficient use, often in the form of excessive consumption of natural resources’ (JWPTE 2002: 9). The 1991 OECD Recommendation on the Use of Economic Instruments in Environmental Policy called for the costs of environmental damage caused by polluters, as well as the costs of preventing and controlling pollution, to be covered by the PPP (cited in de Sadeleer 2002: 37). Subsequent EC documents have made polluters liable for damage done (see next section). In this way the PPP can be used to ensure that the costs of repairing damage caused by pollution, or compensation payments, are paid by the polluters. This broadening of the PPP is aimed at pollution prevention. ‘If polluters have to pay for damage caused, they will cut back pollution’ if the costs of pollution control are less than the compensation or reparation they might otherwise have to pay. It is also aimed at internalising more fully the costs of environmental damage and is referred to as PPP ‘in a broad sense’ or ‘extended’ PPP (EC 2000b: 14; JWPTE 2002: 12). Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development promotes the idea of PPP in the broad sense: National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalisation of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.

Despite its reference to internalisation of environmental costs, this particular version of the principle is fairly weak since it refers only to national regulation, not international; does not require the application of PPP, only an effort towards it; and maintains international trade and investment as a more important goal (de Sadeleer 2002: 25). The internalisation of all environmental costs is more of an ideal than a prescription, as is the

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case with the PPP in the strict sense. Once it has been expanded to include all costs, it is too difficult to make the PPP mandatory. In its latest Environmental Action Programme, Environment 2010: Our Future, Our Choice, the EC (quoted in Coffey & Newcombe 2001: 4) also seeks: ‘To promote the polluter pays principle … to internalise the negative as well as the positive impacts on the environment’ (Article 3(3)). The PPP therefore seeks to achieve various functions, some of which can at times be contradictory: • • • • •

to ensure fairness in international trade to achieve economic integration – internalising costs to provide more equitable redistribution of costs to prevent pollution to provide compensation and reparation (de Sadeleer 2002: 33–4).

The ideal of polluters paying the full cost of their pollution and environmental impact so that external costs of economic activities are internalised into company decision making is not only politically difficult, because companies argue that they cannot afford such costs, but also practically difficult, because the value of environmental damage is very hard to quantify, particularly in the case of irreversible or irreparable damage. Some say that such damage is beyond costing (see chapter 8). One way of dealing with this problem is to ensure that polluters are truly liable for the cost of repairing or cleaning up the environmental damage they cause.

LIABILITY USA: Superfund A wave of publicity about hazardous waste contamination of residential areas in the 1970s, including Love Canal in New York State and Times Beach in Missouri, raised the issue of contaminated sites in the USA. The legislation that followed from this public concern included the 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) otherwise known as Superfund. The Superfund legislation was based on the idea that the polluter should pay, and required that those associated with the contamination of sites (including site owners, banks, insurers and hauliers) be identified and liable for their clean-up. If they would not clean up the sites themselves the EPA would do the work and then charge the polluter the costs of clean-up plus penalties (Haggerty & Welcomer 2003).

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In addition, the chemical and oil industries, as industries likely to cause contamination, were charged a tax to fund the clean-up of sites where the parties who were liable could not be directly identified (about 30 per cent of sites). This tax was later supplemented by a corporate environmental income tax. The total industry contribution was running at around $2 billion per year in the early 1990s. From 1995, however, Congress refused to authorise these taxes, so that increasingly the cleanup of contaminated sites has been funded by general taxpayers. Inevitably, the rate of clean-up has slowed right down. Holdings in the Superfund trust fund declined from $3 billion in 1995 to $25 million in 2003 (Haggerty & Welcomer 2003). Without those funds, the EPA is no longer able to clean up more than a few sites, or to force polluters to pay. Moreover, the community rather than the responsible industry is being forced to pay for the clean-up of sites where individual polluters cannot be identified. Consequently, the community is paying for the cost of pollution, particularly those who live near the contaminated sites that are not being cleaned up. About one in four people in the USA now lives within a mile of a Superfund site. Forty-five per cent of those sites are thought to have a high risk associated with them; only 25 per cent are thought to be low risk. One of the major risks is to groundwater, and about half of all Americans rely on groundwater for drinking water (Haggerty & Welcomer 2003). The discontinuance of the tax is the result of industry lobbying, industry spokespersons having justified the shift of the burden to the general community by arguing that everyone is a polluter: ‘We’re all polluters to some extent. I mean, anyone who’s ever thrown paint in the garbage can or pesticides in the garbage can or used oil or whatever, not to mention some of the cities have not done a good job on their landfills’ (quoted in Haggerty & Welcomer 2003). Such reasoning runs counter to the whole rationale of the PPP, which seeks to identify those directly responsible for particular instances of environmental damage and make them liable in order to ensure fairness and promote prevention.

Europe While the USA has been moving away from the PPP, it is being given greater emphasis in other parts of the world. In 1993 the EC adopted a strict liability regime for waste as a way of further enforcing the PPP. Many countries also adopted liability laws to deal with damage to property and human health. In 2004 the EC issued a directive on environmental liability (EC 2004) that extends the notion of liability to cover damage to natural resources. Like Superfund, it was aimed at repairing environmental damage rather than the mere collection of money from polluters, but its application was

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far wider than contaminated sites. It specifically covered damage to protected natural habitats and wild flora and fauna, including wild birds, and also water contamination and air pollution that damaged water, land, natural habitats or protected species. The directive was aimed at making ‘the causer of environmental damage (the polluter) pay for remedying the damage that he has caused’ (EC 2000b). It was thought that this would prove a greater deterrent to polluters than mere charges and fines, and encourage them to adopt prevention and control measures. Under the directive, liability can only be applied if: the polluters can be identified; the damage is tangible and can be quantified; and a causal link between the polluter and the damage can be established. This means that it is not designed to be applied where pollution is widespread and diffuse, such as carbon dioxide emissions, acid rain or urban smog. A party who is found liable for environmental damage is required to pay: • • • • •

administrative, legal and enforcement costs; the costs of data collection and other general costs; measures to control and contain the damage and prevent further damage; the costs of assessment of actual damage, imminent threats of damage, remediation options; remedial measures including ‘mitigating or interim measures to restore, rehabilitate or replace damaged natural resources and/or impaired services, or to provide an equivalent alternative to those resources or services’ (EC 2004: 58–60).

The EC notes that for the PPP to be fully and properly implemented, environmental damage should be repaired whenever there is an identifiable polluter who can pay for the repair, rather than fining the polluter and using the money for something else. Where several parties are responsible for the damage, the allocation of costs should be decided according to national laws.

Strict liability The idea of strict liability, that is, making polluters liable for damage whether or not it can be proven that they were at fault or negligent, has often been adopted in the case of environmental liability because it is more effective in protecting the environment. This is because fault can be difficult to prove in the case of environmental damage. Moreover, it is thought to be only fair that someone undertaking an activity which is recognised to be dangerous should bear the risk of the damage it might cause, rather than those who suffer the damage or the wider community (EC 2000b: 18). That said, polluters will not be liable under the directive if the damage was the result of events beyond their control.

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The EC Directive (EC 2004) lists the following activities as subject to strict liability: • • •

• • •

• • • •

waste management operations all discharges into inland surface water discharges into groundwater that require permits, authorisation or registration discharges into surface water that require permits, authorisation or registration water abstraction and impoundment manufacture, use, storage, processing, filling, release into the environment and onsite transport of: - dangerous substances - dangerous preparations - plant protection products - biocidal products all transport of dangerous or polluting goods operation of installations subject to authorisation use, release, sale and transport of genetically modified microorganisms transboundary shipment of waste.

Environmental groups have criticised this list for leaving out many dangerous activities, including the activities of small installations, mining activities and oil and gas drilling and transport. They have also criticised the directive for only covering protected habitats and species rather than all habitats and endangered species (BirdLife International et al. 2001). Activities not included in the list – apart from armed conflict, civil war, national defence and international security, and natural disaster, which are not covered by the directive – incur liability only if the operator is at fault or negligent; this is ‘fault-based liability’. Moreover, the Directive (EC 2004: 58–61) allows national governments to exempt polluters who have not been negligent, provided their discharges were authorised by the government and they could not have known the damage those discharges would cause.

Court cases Environmental liability has been enforced by the courts in Canada as a way of upholding the polluter pays principle. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled in 2005 that BC Hydro was liable to clean up a severely contaminated site where, as the BC Electric Corporation, it had disposed of toxic coal tar for 37 years (FOE Canada 2005). Similarly, the Canadian Supreme Court reinforced the PPP when it dismissed an appeal by Imperial Oil in 2003. Imperial Oil had contami-

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nated a site where it had a petroleum depot some 25 years earlier. It had sold the site six years later, and the new owners had partially remediated the area in order to develop it for residential housing, with the approval of the Quebec government. When high levels of hydrocarbon contamination were later found there, the residents sued the developer, the city and the Quebec Ministry of the Environment. In turn, the Minister for the Environment ordered Imperial Oil to do a full assessment of the site and clean-up options. Quebec’s environmental legislation incorporates the PPP and allows it to be applied retrospectively, and the court duly found that Imperial Oil had to comply with the order, despite its pollution having predated the legislation and even though it had no say in the decision to build residences on the site (Buttigieg & Fernando 2003; Ferrara & Mesquita 2003). In Ireland, the High Court found that individual directors of a company that was responsible for dumping 8000 tonnes of waste – including hazardous waste – were personally liable despite the limited liability that directors of corporations are afforded. The Court argued that unless the liability flowed on to directors, the PPP could not be fully implemented if a company was unable to pay its liability costs (Linehan 2003).

Australasia The Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC), which is made up of environment ministers in state and national governments, published a paper on liability for contaminated sites in 1994. The recommendations in that paper (Environment Australia 1999) were adopted in each state. These included: •

Governments should ensure that the polluter, when solvent and identifiable, ultimately bears the cost of any necessary remediation.

•

When the polluter is insolvent or unidentifiable, the person(s) in control of the site, irrespective of whether that person is the owner or the current occupier, should be liable, as a general rule, for any necessary remediation costs.

•

If a site is a risk to human health and/or the environment, governments should be empowered to intervene to direct remedial action to minimise risk (and to recover costs as above).

•

The polluter is responsible for bearing the cost of any offsite remedial works, as a result of contamination from their site.

•

When ownership of a non-risk site is transferred, the level of cleanup prior to transfer is a matter for commercial agreement between the parties. This would apply to most land transfers in the mining industry in the form of a mining lease.

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However, unlike the US and EU legislation, the ANZECC approach was to clean up sites only to suit their proposed use. Thus a site to be used for housing would require a higher standard of clean-up than a site to be used for a factory, and other sites might remain contaminated but still be judged non-risk until such time as their use changed. In the latter case, as long as environmental contamination remains confined to the site, it is not considered a problem. If a later owner wishes to use the site differently, it is then their responsibility to clean it to the required standards. In buying a potentially contaminated site it is up to buyers to inform themselves about its state; in other words, ‘buyer beware’ (Schulz 1994: 442). In the case of a site that poses a health risk or environmental risk due to migration of pollution, government can direct the owner to remediate the site, but the polluter is strictly liable. Owners or government authorities that undertake such remediation have ‘a statutory entitlement to recover costs incurred from the polluters’. Where the polluter cannot be identified, however, it is government’s responsibility. The Superfund approach of an industry levy or tax was rejected in Australia (Schulz 1994: 443).

EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is based on the polluter pays principle but goes beyond a manufacturer’s responsibility for pollution from product manufacture to make the manufacturer responsible for the environmental impact of a product from manufacture to disposal. It was defined in a 1990 report to the Swedish Ministry of Environment (ILSR 2005) as: an environmental protection strategy to reach an environmental objective of a decreased total environmental impact from a product, by making the manufacturer of the product responsible for the entire life-cycle of the product and especially for the take-back, recycling and final disposal of the product.

Normally, government authorities take responsibility for disposal of products and thus disposal is paid for by taxpayers. EPR, however, recognises that product design and manufacturing decisions can determine how environmentally damaging a product will be when used and disposed of, and how readily it can be recycled. Because governments have traditionally taken responsibility for waste management, manufacturers have created an excess of throwaway products and packaging without giving thought to the environmental and other costs associated with them. Manufactured goods now make up more than three-quarters of municipal waste (ILSR 2005).

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By shifting the responsibility back to the manufacturer, EPR is supposed to provide an incentive to ensure that design, manufacturing and packaging decisions are made with an eye to environmental and disposal costs. There are four facets of EPR: •

Liability – responsibility for proven environmental damage caused by products

•

Economic responsibility – responsibility for the cost of collection, disposal and/or recycling of products

•

Physical responsibility – responsibility for actually collecting and dealing with products at the end of their lives

•

Informative responsibility – responsibility to supply information on the potential environmental impacts of a product. (ILSR 2005)

‘Product stewardship’ is a related idea, in that it is concerned with the environmental impacts of the product throughout its life-cycle. However, product stewardship shares responsibility between all those involved in a product’s life-cycle – including designers, suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, retailers and consumers – rather than shifting it to the manufacturer. EPR was adopted during the 1990s by various OECD countries. The Swedish eco-cycle legislation embraces EPR. In Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland and France manufacturers have legal responsibility for taking back packaging and recycling their products; these countries also have ‘end-of-life legislation and voluntary agreements concerning a number of complex products’ such as cars and batteries (IIIEE 1998).

EU directive on waste electrical and electronic equipment The EU’s directive on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is an example of EPR. Electrical and electronic products, ranging from washing machines to television sets and mobile phones, are responsible for a rapidly growing waste stream that is estimated to be increasing at 3–5 per cent per year and will reach 12 million tonnes per year in Europe by 2010. Much of this waste stream currently goes to landfill but it contains hazardous materials and poses environmental risks (Waste Not 2002). In 2001 the EU environment ministers proposed extending the polluter pays principle to cover disposal of products at the end of their useful life. In this case they defined the polluter not as the consumer but as the manufacturer of the electrical and electronic equipment. They reasoned that manufacturers should be responsible for the disposal and recycling of these products after consumers had finished with them.

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The 2003 WEEE Directive (EC 2003) aimed at ‘as a first priority, the prevention of waste electrical and electronic equipment, and in addition, the reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of such wastes so as to reduce the disposal of waste’. It was therefore designed to encourage manufacturers to design products to enhance their potential for reuse, recovery and recycling: ‘Member States shall encourage the design and production of electrical and electronic equipment which take into account and facilitate dismantling and recovery, in particular the reuse and recycling of WEEE, their components and materials’ (Waste Not 2002). The equipment covered includes: • • • • • • • • • •

Large household appliances Small household appliances IT and telecommunications equipment Consumer equipment Lighting equipment Electrical and electronic tools (with the exception of large-scale stationary industrial tools) Toys, leisure and sports equipment Medical devices (with the exception of all implanted and infected products) Monitoring and control instruments Automatic dispensers.

The directive, which took effect in 2005, requires that consumers be able to return their used equipment free of charge, and that governments ensure collection facilities are made available. The final treatment of the collected equipment should use the ‘best available treatment, recovery and recycling techniques’. Further Reading Dommen, Edward (ed.) (1993) Fair Principles for Sustainable Development, Edward Elgar, Aldershot, Hants, UK. Coffey, C & J Newcombe (2001) The Polluter Pays Principle and Fisheries: The Role of Taxes and Charges, Institute for European Environmental Policy, London,

IIIEE (1998) Extended Producer Responsibility as a Policy Instrument, International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, 1998, JWPTE: Joint Working Party on Trade and Environment (2002) The Polluter-Pays Principle as It Relates to International Trade, OECD, Paris, 23 December.

Recommendation of the Council Concerning the Application of the Polluter-Pays Principle to Accidental Pollution (1989) OECD, Paris, 7 July. de Sadeleer, Nicolas (2002) Environmental Principles: From Political Slogans to Legal Rules, Oxford University Press, Oxford. White Paper on Environmental Liability (2000) European Commission, Luxembourg, 9 February,

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THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE

Although uncertainties about the consequences of human behaviour have always existed, they have become more significant in recent times because of the growing scope, complexity and hazardous consequences of human activities. This means it is becoming ever more vital to prevent the harm these activities might do, even without being sure what that harm might be. While modern environmental regulations are anticipatory and preventive they are not necessarily precautionary. They generally aim to prevent known risks rather than anticipate and prevent uncertain potential harm. This is where the precautionary principle comes in. Risk ‘is usually defined as the amalgam of the probability of an event occurring and the seriousness of the consequences should it occur’ (Cameron 1999: 37). For example, the risk of a major nuclear power accident is the combination of a low probability of such an accident, which engineers claim can be calculated, multiplied by the serious damage that would occur as a result of the spread of nuclear radiation, including thousands of deaths, cancers, birth defects. If the risk of an accident is considered too high then a nuclear power plant will not be granted approval and thus the risk is prevented. If one accepts that the risk of a nuclear accident can be calculated with some degree of accuracy, the precautionary principle does not apply. If, however, one believes that engineers are unable to calculate the probability of a major nuclear accident with any reasonable certainty or accuracy, then the precautionary principle does apply. If an activity or product poses a known high risk then preventive action is called for rather than precautionary action. It is only when the risk is uncertain because either the probability of damage is uncertain and/or the extent of damage is uncertain that the precautionary principle applies.

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Box 3.1 Definition of the precautionary principle When human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm. Morally unacceptable harm refers to harm to humans or the environment that is • threatening to human life or health, or • serious and effectively irreversible, or • inequitable to present or future generations, or • imposed without adequate consideration of the human rights of those affected. The judgment of plausibility should be grounded in scientific analysis. Analysis should be ongoing so that chosen actions are subject to review. Uncertainty may apply to, but need not be limited to, causality or the bounds of the possible harm. Actions are interventions that are undertaken before harm occurs that seek to avoid or diminish the harm. Actions should be chosen that are proportional to the seriousness of the potential harm, with consideration of their positive and negative consequences, and with an assessment of the moral implications of both action and inaction. The choice of action should be the result of a participatory process. Source (COMEST 2005: 14)

SHIFTING THE BURDEN OF PROOF In the past many products and processes have been marketed without prior approval or any requirement that the manufacturer show evidence that they will not harm human health or the environment. Similarly, many activities and developments have been undertaken without the need for developers to show they will not have an adverse

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environmental impact. Traditionally it has been up to consumers, environmentalists or government authorities to make a convincing scientific case that such activities or products were harmful before they could be regulated. The thinking was that regulations constrained economic activity and would only be justified if there were undisputed scientific evidence that such activity would cause harm. This is a ‘wait and see’ approach where the burden of proof is on those asserting damage is being or will be done. Should a chemical be assumed safe until proven dangerous, or should the chemical not be used until it has been proven to be relatively harmless? Normally, people are innocent until proven guilty. But should the same rule apply to chemicals? Like many environmentalists and regulators, Steven Jellinek of the US EPA argues that granting civil rights to toxic substances does not make sense, and that the burden of proof should be on those wanting to use or dispose of the chemicals to demonstrate they are safe before releasing them. ‘Rarely will there be overwhelming evidence of a hazard – the smoking gun or dead bodies – but the most obvious implication of this sort of proof is that we have waited too long to take precautionary action’ (Jellinek 1980: 8–9). In the 1970s the US EPA imposed limits on lead in petrol based on scientific evidence that it was causing problems but without proof that it had actually harmed particular people. The oil industry opposed the regulations in the courts but the EPA won. ‘The case is considered a landmark in U.S. environmental law because it established that EPA could act in a precautionary fashion rather than wait for scientific certainty about the harmfulness of a substance before acting’ (Ackerman & Heinzerling 2004: 4). These days certain activities require developers to prepare environmental impact statements or assessments and some products, such as pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides and food additives, must gain approval before they can be marketed. In these cases it is initially assumed that the activity in question or the product may be hazardous or environmentally damaging, and the burden of proof has been shifted to the developer or manufacturer, who needs to produce scientific evidence that the activity or product is safe in order to get approval (see table 3.1). Although we say the burden of ‘proof’ has been shifted, proof is not actually required, just a convincing case – supported by scientific evidence – that the activity or product is safe.

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Table 3.1 Shifting burden of proof Before precautionary principle

Precautionary principle

People exposed to risky actions must bear the risks of such actions until it can be demonstrated that they cause harm to health or the environment.

People exposed to risk can ask for precautionary actions to be taken before risky actions can be proven to cause harm.

The people exposed to risk bear the Once some preliminary basis for responsibility for demonstrating that taking precautionary action exists, actions caused harm. risk creators bear the responsibility of showing that actions are safe, or at least acceptably risky. Adapted from (CPR 2005b)

This shifting of the burden of proof from one party to another, for example from the regulatory authority to the polluter, is only one element of the precautionary principle. However, the fact that those proposing an activity have to show it is safe before it is approved – rather than the government needing to show it is unsafe before it can be restricted – is an important aspect of the precautionary principle. In practice, the burden of proof has been shifted for new products and activities only where there is a long history of harm arising from like products and activities. Existing products are generally ‘presumed safe’. This bias is based partly on the assumption that it is cheaper and more politically acceptable to prevent new products being manufactured than it is to ban existing products, and partly on the assumption that it is easier to prevent new developments than dismantle existing ones. Similarly, synthetic substances may require licences but natural substances are assumed safe, even if they are added in unnatural quantities to the environment (Bodansky 1994: 212–3). Those proposing new environmental regulations often still have the burden of making a watertight scientific case that the regulations are necessary to protect human health or the environment. This gives opponents the opportunity to undermine the justification for such regulations by emphasising the uncertainties in their scientific evidence. What the precautionary principle does is ease the standard of proof, so that scientific evidence of possible harm is sufficient to prompt regulatory action. The assumption that an activity or product is safe until proven harmful shifts, so that it can be considered harmful before that proof is available. It is no longer sufficient to raise doubts about whether the harm will happen to prevent an activity or product from being regu-

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lated. In this way the balance between environment and economic development is shifted a little more towards environmental protection: ‘previously the polluter benefited from scientific doubt; henceforth doubt will work to the benefit of the environment’ (de Sadeleer 2002: 203).

NATURE OF THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE Wisdom Roberto Andorno (2004: 11–12) points out that the precautionary principle is based on the classical virtue of prudence, where prudence means the ‘ability to discern the most suitable course of action’. Prudence therefore represents ‘practical wisdom’ rather than risk aversion or lack of courage. It embraces the folk wisdom of ‘better safe than sorry’, ‘look before you leap’, ‘a stitch in time saves nine’, and the commonsense idea that if you are about to try something new, it is best to consider whether it is safe and not to go ahead until you can be reasonably confident that it is, particularly if the consequences of the action could conceivably lead to some disastrous outcome. In the case of the precautionary principle, it is not only a matter of considering consequences for the individual or the action taker, but considering also the broader consequences for the planet and for future generations. It says that if the environmental consequences could be serious we should be cautious. In this way the precautionary principle is a form of ‘planetary wisdom’. It is antithetical to a ‘wait and see’ approach, where policy makers wait till they have more information before acting.

Merits of postponement Economists argue that in some circumstances it may be preferable to postpone acting on a problem, and incur the costs of fixing it up later, because: • •

future costs are perceived to be less burdensome than current costs. if good scientific research accompanies the delay, the extra information might enable the problem to be solved in a cheaper and more effective way (Pearce et al. 1989).

Postponing action might not be the best decision, however, because it may cost considerably more to solve a problem in the future than it does to solve it now. In fact, if the damage done in the ensuing time is irre-

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versible, the problem may not be able to be solved at all. Moreover, it is not fair (morally justifiable) to pass environmental risks on to future generations with the assumption that they will have the knowledge and/or technology to deal with them. Thus, while the cost of precaution may be high and it may be possible to come up with more cost-effective solutions later, ‘a society committed to sustainable development will shift the focus of its environmental policy towards an anticipatory stance, especially as reactive policy risks shifting the burden of environmental risks to future generations’ (Pearce et al. 1989: 19).

Critics The precautionary principle remains controversial in the USA, where corporate interests have succeeded in spreading confusion about what it means and what it implies. Opponents argue that the precautionary principle is unscientific; that it can be triggered by irrational concerns; that it aims at an unrealistic goal of zero risk; and that it will result in the banning of useful chemicals and the prevention of technological innovation. Excessive caution, it is argued, leads to paralysis and stagnation. In fact, as this chapter will show, the precautionary principle cannot be applied without scientific evidence of harm. The Canadian government (Environment Canada 2001) points out that ‘sound scientific information and its evaluation must be the basis’ for applying the precautionary principle and that, in deciding whether scientific evidence is sound, ‘decision makers should give particular weight … to peerreviewed science’. Nor does the precautionary principle aim to reduce risk to zero – it aims to avoid or mitigate likely harm. The measures to be adopted to achieve this are not dictated by the precautionary principle and there is no requirement on the part of the precautionary principle to ban anything, although decision makers may conclude that a ban is appropriate in certain circumstances. The precautionary principle is not a ‘decisionmaking algorithm’ telling managers how to choose between pre-existing solutions, it is a guide as to when precaution needs to be exercised and to the criteria that should be used to evaluate measures adopted (Andorno 2004: 16). The precautionary principle does not conflict with technological innovation, but requires a new approach – an approach that ‘encourages the exploration of alternative modes of development that are compatible with a good quality of life for present and future generations’. It calls for ‘greater imaginative effort in the development of safer and cleaner technologies’. What the precautionary principle does do is redirect innovation in more humane and environmentally sound directions (Andorno 2004: 16).

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How it works The precautionary principle has two parts: (i) The political decision whether to act, which requires: • identification of potential adverse effects that threaten the desired level of protection now or in the future, when • these adverse effects are caused or exacerbated by human activity, and • scientific evaluation of such effects shows they are plausible and highly probable, and • the exact risk cannot be determined because of scientific uncertainty, and • postponing action will make effective action more difficult later on. (ii) The measures to be taken if action is decided upon.

THREAT TO DESIRED LEVEL OF PROTECTION Political judgment All human activity has some impact on the environment. The question is: What is an acceptable impact and what impacts need to be prevented or mitigated? Clearly this is a political question that requires broad community participation rather than a scientific question, given that the scientific evidence is inconclusive and the question of acceptability is a value judgment. Definitions of the precautionary principle restrict precautionary measures to situations where the potential harm is ‘serious and irreversible’ or ‘unacceptable’ or ‘transgenerational’ or ‘global’ or ‘significant’, as in ‘significant reduction in biological diversity’. But most of these terms cannot be quantified scientifically or economically (de Sadeleer 2002: 163–5). For this reason the judgment should be made by a wide cross-section of the community, not by just a few experts. ‘Judging what is an “acceptable” level of risk for society is an eminently political responsibility’ (EC 2000a: 4). This is recognised by the EC (2000a: 8) definition of the precautionary principle, which states: The precautionary principle applies where scientific evidence is insufficient, inconclusive or uncertain and preliminary scientific evaluation indicates that there are reasonable grounds for concern that the potentially dangerous effects on the environment, human, animal or plant health may be inconsistent with the high level of protection chosen by the EU [emphasis added].

According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), each nation should be able to decide for itself the level of environmental and health protection

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which is appropriate, even if this means that in applying the precautionary principle it adopts a level of protection that is higher than required by international standards and guidelines (cited in EC 2000a: 11). Threats not only to present generations but to future generations must be considered: It is not the existence of risk in itself that is the challenge, but the distribution of risk and control of it. The fact that a society accepts certain risks, is not the same as accepting all sorts of risk. The risk must be within certain ethically acceptable limits, and these must be the objects of political processes of decision. The risk should be distributed equitably without reinforcing already existing dissimilarities in a society. (NENT 1998: 12)

Scientific judgments Uncertainty may not only relate to the probability of a serious event occurring; it may also relate to how serious the consequences might be. For example, there is a general scientific consensus that global warming will occur if greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced, but the consequences of this are uncertain. There is no scientific consensus about the scope or rapidity of sea level rise or its consequences. There is even less consensus about the impacts in particular parts of the world (de Sadeleer 2002: 162). Even if the potential consequences could be determined, their significance will vary from person to person depending on, amongst other things, how they themselves will be affected; how resilient they believe nature to be; and how important environmental values are to them. Judgments about whether potential harm will be serious and irreversible will also vary between scientists, because such judgments include issues of the value of the area or species under threat, and of the time-span for reversibility to be considered feasible. The impact of a particular activity or product may be small on its own but the impact of many such products and activities has also to be considered, both in terms of their cumulative impact and also the way various impacts interrelate. What may begin as a small impact may contribute to a major disturbance: Economists call this phenomenon the ‘tyranny of small decisions’ because of the perverse effects that may result from a large number of micro-decisions that individually have no importance for environmental protection but which, taken together, give rise to considerable damage. (de Sadeleer 2002: 164)

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Guidelines Adrian Deville and Ronnie Harding (1997: 26) suggest the following types of threats are widely regarded as serious or undesirable: • • • • • •

Loss of species Loss of biodiversity (including species, genetic and ecosystem diversity) Damage to ecological processes Contamination of soils, water bodies and food chains Introduction of ‘exotic’ organisms to ecosystems Releases of ‘new’ chemicals.

‘Irreversibility’ is another term often used to decide if the precautionary principle should be triggered. It ‘is usually defined as involving environmental resources that cannot be replaced, or which could be restored, but only in the long term or at great expense’ (Dovers & Handmer 1999: 172). Whether the potential harm is reversible or not may be uncertain or disputed, and the issue of whether it can be reversed in the short term at a reasonable cost is a value-laden judgment. Irreversibility may not be seen as a bad thing if that which cannot be reversed is not thought to be important. The loss of a particular insect, although irreversible, may not seem to be particularly serious, particularly if the activity that will result in its loss brings many benefits with it. For this reason many definitions specify that damage should be ‘serious and irreversible’ to trigger the precautionary principle. However, serious damage, such as an oil spill, may be reversible, but not before a great deal of harm is done, so some definitions specify that harm should be either ‘serious or irreversible’. One thing that should be noted is the lopsided nature of reversibility with respect to policy decisions. The decision to conserve an area and not go ahead with a development can usually be reversed at a later date. However, the decision to go ahead with a development is usually irreversible once the development takes place. The Louisville Charter for Safer Chemicals (Myers et al. 2005: 4) outlines conditions for application of the precautionary principle with respect to chemicals: 1. Credible evidence that a synthetic chemical can cause biological changes that are known to result in unintended harmful outcomes in some cases. 2. The presence of such a chemical where it does not belong and where it can cause damage to biological systems (such as human bodies).

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SCIENTIFIC UNCERTAINTY If the impact of a particular activity is well known, that is, there is widespread scientific agreement about it, and the likelihood of its occurring is known with some confidence, the precautionary principle is not relevant. However, preventative measures may still be necessary. ‘The more uncertain the threat, the greater the degree of precaution required’ (Deville & Harding 1997: 34–7). In the area of environmental policy, decisions often have to be made before scientific experts are ‘able to present unambiguous and scientifically well-founded recommendations’ (NENT 1998: 59). Scientists are usually unable to tell policy makers exactly where and how far a pollutant will spread, how it will interact with other pollutants, and how it will affect the health of people and the functioning of ecosystems.

Types of uncertainty Steven Yearley (1991: 129–31), a British social scientist, identifies four different reasons why scientists face uncertainties when dealing with environmental problems.

Pragmatic uncertainty Scientists are often asked to make recommendations when they do not have enough time or funds to investigate the answers fully. The available research may be of poor quality or not immediately applicable to the situation at hand. Pragmatic uncertainty arises from: • • •

Lack of data Doubts about accuracy of data Doubts about relevance of data.

Theoretical uncertainty Ecological science is less developed than other sciences; consequently, there is less agreement than in other scientific disciplines, and more variety of interpretations of data and findings. Theoretical uncertainty arises from: • • • •

Disagreements over interpretation of data Disagreements over scientific methodology Lack of knowledge about causal connections Doubts over knowledge framework – epistemological uncertainty.

Complexity in open systems Uncertainty arises from ‘the sheer complexity of large-scale phenomena taking place in open systems’. Nature is less knowable and less predictable than complex systems, such as nuclear power plants, that are created and controlled by humans. Complexity arises from:

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Variability of ecological processes Indeterminacy (explained on the next page).

Intangible damage Environmental damage may not be easily observable and therefore may be difficult to monitor and understand. For example, depletion of the ozone layer can only be measured by high-technology equipment and would previously have been extremely difficult to predict. A lack of data can result from a lack of past studies. Thousands of chemicals used commercially have not been tested for their ability to bioaccumulate in the food chain or for their toxicity to a whole variety of organisms because the cost seems to be prohibitive. Scientists try to fill gaps in knowledge by extrapolating from what they do know and estimating probabilities based on past experiences and observations (MacGarvin 1994). This can be done with computer modelling. However, where processes are not known or understood, computer modelling may not be of much use because the relationships between various parameters, such as what happens to plankton when surface temperatures change, is unknown and may not change in a linear or predictable fashion (O’Riordan & Cameron 1994: 64). Even if the impacts of individual chemicals were known, their synergistic impact, that is, the effect of two or more chemicals interacting in the environment, would be difficult to predict. Moreover, scientists lack full knowledge of the ‘ecological interactions that maintain ecosystems’. A particular species may play a key role in maintaining the health of an ecosystem, yet because it appears to play a relatively minor role, remains unstudied. Marine ecologists, for example, study organisms that bioaccumulate contaminants in a way that can be easily measured, and study commercial fish species which need to be monitored for human health reasons. Yet there is no reason to suppose that these are the species that are vital to the ecosystem, or whose health is a good indicator of the health of the ecosystem. This means that it is ‘unreasonable to expect that we can predict the effect of human actions upon marine ecosystems with any accuracy’ (MacGarvin 1994). Even when harm is beginning to occur it may not be self-evident because: • • • •

the first signs of damage are not outside the bounds of normal variation in individuals or populations the first effects are not recognised to be harmful changes may be followed by a long time period before the consequences become evident the harm that is caused may be attributed to a number of causes (Myers et al. 2005: 2).

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Ignorance and indeterminacy In a situation where change happens chaotically, or where relationships are unstable and subject to sudden dramatic change, the situation is indeterminate and traditional scientific methods have little to offer in terms of assessment (MacGarvin 1994: 65). ‘If we cannot determine the accuracy of the scientific and social assumptions on which our assessment of risk is based, this is referred to as “indeterminacy”.’ For example, we may not know whether the questions that scientists are asking are the right ones, or be unable to understand the social context of an activity that may impact an environment because of political instability in the region (Deville & Harding 1997: 35). The idea that more research will resolve uncertainties is not necessarily true. Further research may only serve to increase the uncertainties by raising more issues and questions. The ultimate uncertainty is ‘ignorance’, where we are completely unaware of possible threats (Deville & Harding 1997: 31). The relationship between uncertainty, indeterminacy and ignorance is shown in figure 3.1. Figure 3.1 Levels of uncertainty

Indeterminacy

Ignorance

you cannot know what you need to know

you don’t know what you don’t know

Uncertainty you think you know what you don’t know

Source (Deville & Harding 1997: 34)

Jerry Ravetz (1986) argues that in dealing with environmental problems, policies must be made, despite uncertain facts and disputed values, on issues for which the stakes are high and about which decisions are urgently needed. In other areas, researchers are able to choose problems that are likely to be solvable, but in policy-related areas they are faced with problems that are imposed by external forces, such as public need. Because of this, researchers are often forced to work in areas of knowledge that are poorly developed, and for which they lack adequate infor-

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mation. The reduction of uncertainties can be extremely difficult. Ravetz argues that in such situations it can be disastrous not to be aware of our ignorance. Decisions need to be iterative and closely monitored so that they can be altered as new information comes to hand. Alvin Weinberg (1986) also addresses the problem that policy makers face given such substantial uncertainties. He points out that science is best able to make predictions when it is dealing with things that happen regularly or often. When something is rare, or a one-off event, science loses its predictive power; it can only hope to explain what happened after the event. Policy makers have to deal with two types of non-routine events: one is the accident, and the other is the discovery of a chronic, low-level exposure to a chemical or radiation that might affect a few individuals in every thousand or one hundred thousand. Attempting to make predictions in such situations is labelled by Weinberg as ‘trans-science’. He says that ‘regulators, instead of asking science for answers to unanswerable questions, ought to be content with less far-reaching answers’.

Political uses of uncertainty Scientific uncertainty is used by both sides in any environmental controversy as an opportunity to ‘win’. Scientific uncertainties seem to increase with the increasing relevance of the science to the policy decision, because those with vested interests in the outcomes of the decision-making frequently seek an advantage by highlighting those uncertainties. In a study of the politics of regulation in Europe and the USA, for example, Ronald Brickman and his colleagues (1985: 187) concluded that scientific uncertainties ‘make it possible for proponents and opponents of regulation to interpret the scientific basis for cancer risk assessment in ways that advance their particular policy objectives’. There is no scientific way to know whether a substance will cause cancer in humans without testing it on humans – which would be unethical. Scientists disagree over how chemicals should be tested and how the results of those tests should be interpreted. The tests that are used include short-term tests for mutagenic (cell-mutating) activity; high-dose tests on animals such as mice; and studies of humans who have been accidentally exposed to the substances. Brickman and his colleagues (1985: 197) found that the consequences that should follow from a positive test were disputed: Some environmentalists resolutely maintained that positive evidence from one or more short-term tests should trigger regulation, even without convincing support from other sources. At the other extreme, some witnesses for industry argued that no significance should be attached to these tests until they are more thoroughly validated.

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Using animal tests to determine whether a substance is carcinogenic (cancer causing) in humans is equally controversial, and not only for ethical reasons. There are also disagreements over such things as how experiments should be designed and whether tumours induced at high doses in animals are relevant to the exposure of humans to low doses of the same chemical. The regulator is forced to make a decision even though there is scientific uncertainty and debate. He or she is often faced with the situation that a product which has high social or economic benefits has shown some indications of being carcinogenic. On the other hand, the costs of not limiting a chemical might be even greater in terms of human health and environmental damage than the benefits of leaving it freely on the market. A regulator generally does not have the luxury of waiting around until more compelling evidence comes in. Not acting on the given information is just as much a decision as acting.

National differences Regulators react to this dilemma differently in different countries. In the USA in the past, the EPA has been far more ready to regulate on the basis of experiments done in the laboratory than are the equivalent authorities in France and Germany. German regulators do not automatically view substances that cause cancer in animals as being a threat to humans. British regulators also require much more ‘proof’ than do US regulators. An example is the case of the pesticides aldrin and dieldrin, which were banned in the USA but not in Britain or Australia, although the same data was available to regulators in all three countries (Gillespie et al. 1982). The US regulators have also taken a more precautionary approach when it comes to the question of threshold effects. US regulators do not assume that there is a certain level – a threshold – below which a chemical has no effect. Australian and British regulators are far more willing to accept the idea of threshold levels. A US interagency agreement states that because threshold doses that cause cancer have not been established, ‘a prudent approach from a safety standpoint is to assume that any dose may induce or promote carcinogenesis’. This stance was condemned by industry, the courts and sections of the public as being ‘unduly restrictive and insensitive to socioeconomic costs’ (quoted in Brickman et al. 1985: 208–10). In contrast, the British insistence that scientific evidence must support the existence of thresholds has been met with fierce union opposition in the area of occupational health and safety. Even in the USA, laboratory evidence that a chemical causes cancer is not always enough to result in the banning of that chemical. For example, 2,4,5-T (the active chemical in some herbicides) received only a partial ban after there was evidence that human foetuses had been adversely affected by it.

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How much evidence? Where, between the extremes of speculation and the unattainable full scientific certainty, is the point where there is sufficient knowledge to act? How much evidence does there need to be before the precautionary principle is triggered? If no evidence were required, then any non-scientific speculation or irrational fear would be enough to require precautionary measures and the principle would become impractical. On the other hand, scientific proof would render the precautionary principle unnecessary. Most definitions of the precautionary principle try to define the level of evidence in terms of ‘reasonable grounds for concern’ or ‘reasonable scientific plausibility’ or ‘scientific credibility’ or require decisions to be made ‘on the basis of available pertinent information’ (de Sadeleer 2002: 159–60). David Resnik (2003: 329–44) has summarised a number of criteria that could be used to assess the scientific plausibility of a hypothesis: Coherence. The hypothesis should be consistent with and supported by our background knowledge and theories. If a hypothesis requires us to reject widely accepted scientific theories and facts, then it is not plausible. Explanatory power. The hypothesis should be able to explain important facts and phenomena. Hypotheses that have no explanatory power are less plausible. Analogy. The hypothesis should posit causal mechanisms or processes that are similar to other well-understood mechanisms and processes. A hypothesis that posits radically new and unfamiliar mechanisms and processes lacks plausibility. Precedence. Events posited by the hypothesis should be similar to previously observed events, which set an historical precedent for the hypothesis. Precision. The hypothesis should be reasonably precise. Although there are limits to precision in science, a hopelessly vague hypothesis should not be regarded as plausible. Simplicity. The hypothesis should be parsimonious. Recondite and complex hypotheses are not as plausible as parsimonious ones.

However, this leaves aside the question of ignorance. If the impacts of a new chemical, for example, are unknown and there is no reasonable scientifically credible case to say whether or not it will cause harm, should the chemical be approved for release? Policy makers have to deal with situations of ignorance as well as uncertainty.

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MEASURES TO BE TAKEN Weak version Measures to be taken in response to the precautionary principle being triggered are not dictated by the precautionary principle. Some definitions of the precautionary principle do not stipulate the need for any measures to be taken at all. For example, the Rio Declaration’s definition states that ‘lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation’. This does not preclude other reasons for postponing or avoiding such measures: There is nothing in this version of the precautionary principle which requires decision-makers to give overriding, primary, or even substantial weight to loss of biodiversity, as compared to social and economic factors, when deciding how to proceed. (Farrier 1999: 108)

The view that action should be avoided if the benefits of inaction are greater than the costs assumes, firstly, that costs can be measured despite the uncertainty surrounding them, and secondly, that there is only one way of achieving the benefits and that environmental sacrifices are necessary to achieve them. This is the view economists often take. For example, David Pearce (1994: 144–5) says: Put another way, no significant deterioration of the environment should occur unless the benefits associated with that deterioration heavily outweigh the costs of the deterioration … Clearly, the adoption of the precautionary principle can be expensive. If the benefits foregone are substantial and new information reveals that the measure turns out not to have been warranted, then there will be a high net cost to precaution … This suggests that some balancing of costs and benefits still must play a role even in contexts where the precautionary principle is thought to apply.

Strong version A stronger version of the precautionary principle dictates that positive action must be taken to avoid or mitigate the potential harm. In this view, if the harm is judged unacceptable or serious and irreversible, then inaction is not precautionary and is not compatible with the precautionary principle. ‘Interventions are required before possible harm occurs, or before certainty about such harm can be achieved’ (COMEST 2005: 8).

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Monitoring impacts or undertaking further research is merely a way of delaying intervention until more is known (in other words, ‘wait and see’) and thus is not a precautionary approach. The Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle (1998) clearly mandates precautionary measures and is therefore a strong version of the precautionary principle: ‘When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically …’ The strong approach assumes that environmental protection is a priority and that other less environmentally damaging ways can be found to achieve the economic benefits which the proposed action would have brought. Nevertheless, even in the stronger version of the precautionary principle, the action that should be taken is not determined by the principle. In only a few rare cases is the precautionary principle defined in a way that dictates measures. For example, the Oslo Commission of 1989 agreed that the dumping of industrial wastes, ‘except for inert materials of natural origin’, into the North Sea should cease; that it should be allowed only where it could be shown that there were no practical alternatives and it would cause no harm to the marine environment (cited in Harding & Fisher 1999: 305).

Criteria for measures In most cases, however, the measures to be taken have to be decided and again this is a political decision that should involve the broad community. Measures can either ‘constrain the possibility of the harm’ or ‘contain the harm’, should it occur, by limiting its scope or controlling it (COMEST 2005: 8). According to the EC (2000a: 18–20), measures taken in response to the precautionary principle should be proportional, non-discriminatory, consistent, beneficial, and provisional.

Proportional Proportionality means that measures adopted should be proportionate to the level of protection required and that aiming at zero risk is not only unfeasible but an overreaction. Similarly, a total ban on a product or process may be more than is required in the situation. It may be that mitigating or reducing the potential harm through reducing exposure pathways or limiting the use of a product may be sufficient to ensure that adequate protection levels are maintained. Trying to reduce the last 4 per cent of pollution may be excessively expensive and the costs out of proportion to the harm that this last 4 per cent poses. The money might be better spent on other areas of environmental improvement.

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Non-discriminatory Measures should not differ according to the geographical origin of a product or any other extraneous factors. Comparable products or processes should be subject to similar measures. Consistent Measures taken should be consistent with, and utilise a similar approach to, measures taken in similar circumstances in the past. In particular, measures taken in response to the precautionary principle should be consistent with measures taken where products or processes have a similar level of harm but where there is less uncertainty. Beneficial When deciding measures to be taken the advantages and disadvantages of the measures to be taken should be considered, and compared with the advantages and disadvantages of not taking action, to ensure that some net benefit will result. Advantages and disadvantages include, but are not reduced to, economic costs and benefits. Provisional The measures taken should be reviewed periodically so that consideration can be given to relevant new scientific information which may change the assessment of potential harm. There should also be ongoing scientific studies aimed at reducing the uncertainties involved.

LEGISLATION The use of precaution has a long history. One can argue that John Snow was exercising precaution when he removed the handle from a London water pump in 1854 because he suspected that the water was causing people to be infected with cholera. The causal link between cholera and contaminated water was not understood at that time but the measure succeeded in saving many lives (Harramoës et al. 2001).

International agreements The precautionary principle achieved widespread recognition after it was incorporated into the Declaration on Environment and Development decided at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. The Rio Declaration states, in principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capability. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

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In 1993 the Treaty of Maastricht required European Community countries and the European Commission to base environmental policy on the precautionary principle. In 1999 the Council of the European Commission (EC 2000a: 8, 13) urged the Commission to ensure that future legislation and policies were guided by the precautionary principle so that the principle becomes ‘a central plank of Community policy’. The precautionary principle has been incorporated into many international laws and almost all recent international treaties that aim to protect the environment. These include: • • • •

1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).

In this way, according to the EC (2000a: 11), ‘it has become a full-fledged and general principle of international law’. While international courts are still reluctant to accept it as a legal or a general principle, it is, however, widely accepted as a principle with similar standing to that of sustainable development (Andorno 2004: 15–6; Cameron 1999: 30; de Sadeleer 2002: 100).

National legislation The precautionary principle has been incorporated into national laws in several countries, including Germany, Belgium and Sweden, and has influenced several court judgments. In France it has even been included in the nation’s constitution, as part of an environmental charter (see chapter 5). This gives the principle priority over other legislation (Case 2005; de Sadeleer 2002: 124–37). The legal system in English-speaking countries is less conducive to the incorporation of broad principles as it tends to be based on specific rules and regulations. In the United Kingdom, for example, the precautionary principle is not included in statutory law, nor has it made much headway in the courts. It has been included in a weak form in discussion papers and government policy statements such as the 1990 White Paper This Common Inheritance and the 1999 A Better Quality of Life (de Sadeleer 2002: 138; Sustainable Development Unit 1999). The updated UK sustainable development strategy published in 2005, Securing the Future (2005: 101), states: There are, however, still instances where decisions on managing natural resources will have to be taken on the basis of partial information. In these instances, and where, firstly, there is a risk of significant adverse environmental effects occurring and secondly, any

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possible mitigation measures seem unlikely to safeguard against these effects, the precautionary principle will be adopted. Where evidence exists of likely harm to ecosystems or biodiversity, we will adopt practices that avoid irreversible damage.

In the USA the term ‘precautionary approach’ is preferred but there, as in the United Kingdom, broad statements of principle are not generally found in environmental law. It has been argued that although US environmental and health laws do not refer to the precautionary principle or approach by name, some of the earlier environmental legislation nevertheless adopted it. This has changed in recent years as politicians, under pressure from corporate donors, have demanded all environmental legislation be grounded in scientific rigour and subjected to cost–benefit analysis and risk assessment (Bodansky 1994; de Sadeleer 2002: 139–47). During the 1970s various court decisions supported the need for the US EPA to take action to prevent harm when cause and effect was unproven and therefore harm was uncertain. For example: •

In 1978 the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that the EPA could apply standards under the Clean Water Act (CWA) that assumed asbestos in drinking water was harmful, even though they did not have scientific evidence to demonstrate it was.

•

In another court case, the EPA was allowed to set tough air emission standards for some chemicals under the Clean Air Act (CAA) based on extrapolation from other chemicals about which more was known.

•

In 1978 the Supreme Court found that action that threatened an endangered species should be prohibited, under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), even though the long-term value of that species was unknown (de Sadeleer 2002: 141–45).

In the 1980s, when ozone depletion was put forward as an unproven scientific theory, the United Kingdom decided not to regulate until the theory had been validated but the US government took a precautionary approach and restricted chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which were thought to cause ozone depletion (de Sadeleer 2002: 154). In Australia, the precautionary principle was incorporated in the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment (IGAE) in 1992 as one of four guiding principles. The agreement does not have the force of law but provides guidelines for environmental policy-making at the various levels of government throughout Australia. The precautionary principle was also included in the National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development in 1992 (Deville & Harding 1997: 17; Fisher 1999: 83). It has been incorporated in more than 18 laws as well, including:

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Protection of the Environment Administration Act 1991 (NSW) Environmental Protection Act 1993 (SA) National Environmental Protection Council Act 1994 (Commonwealth) Environmental Protection Act 1994 (Qld) Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act 1994 (Tas)

Several Australian court cases have also considered the precautionary principle, defining it as a ‘duty to be cautious’ (Fisher 1999: 83). Further Reading Andorno, Roberto (2004) The precautionary principle: a new legal standard for the technological age, Journal of International Biotechnology Law (1), pp 11–19. COMEST (2005) The precautionary principle, World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology, UNESCO, Paris, March,

Deville, Adrian & Ronnie Harding (1997) Applying the Precautionary Principle, The Federation Press, Sydney. Harding, Ronnie & Elizabeth Fisher (eds) (1999) Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle, The Federation Press, Sydney. O’Riordan, T & J Cameron (eds) (1994) Interpreting the Precautionary Principle, Earthscan, London. de Sadeleer, Nicolas (2002) Environmental Principles: From Political Slogans to Legal Rules, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

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PA RT I I

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

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THE EQUITY PRINCIPLE

Equity implies a need for fairness in the distribution of gains and losses, and the entitlement of everyone to an acceptable quality and standard of living. Equity is not the same as equality, for there may be good reasons for people to have different rewards and burdens or to be treated differently. Equity requires, however, that these reasons be morally relevant, that is, that they be just, fair and impartial. Impartiality means that factors such as race, religion, colour, gender or nationality are not relevant. Justice is about how rewards and burdens are distributed. Equity can have three aspects: • • •

People have certain rights that must be respected. People get what they deserve – fairness. People’s needs should be met and their contribution to meeting such needs is based on their ability to do so (Low & Gleeson 1998: 49).

This means that the distribution of rewards and burdens may be deserved on the basis of a person’s efforts, choices and abilities, but those rewards and burdens should not be out of proportion to the actions or qualities of that person. It also means that there should be limits to the burdens that individuals are subject to and that their basic needs should be met no matter what their abilities. Each person has a right to life, health and the basic conditions of subsistence, as well as certain political and social rights (which are covered in chapter 5). Jim Falk and his colleagues (1993: 2) describe equity this way: Equity derives from a concept of social justice. It represents a belief that there are some things which people should have, that there are basic needs that should be fulfilled, that burdens and rewards should

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not be spread too divergently across the community, and that policy should be directed with impartiality, fairness and justice towards these ends.

In its narrowest terms, equity means that there should be a minimum level of income and environmental quality below which nobody falls. Within a community it usually also means that everyone should have equal access to community resources and opportunities, and that no individuals or groups of people should be asked to carry a greater environmental burden than the rest of the community as a result of government or business actions. Equity as a concept is fundamental to sustainable development. The Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainable development is based on intergenerational equity: ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED 1990: 87). Equity can be applied across communities and nations, and across generations. The Commission insisted not only on intergenerational equity but also on equity within existing generations. It argued: Poverty is not only an evil in itself, but sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfil their aspirations for a better life … Meeting essential needs requires not only a new era of economic growth for nations in which the majority are poor, but an assurance that those poor get their fair share of the resources required to sustain that growth (WCED 1990: 8).

INTRAGENERATIONAL EQUITY Intragenerational equity is concerned with equity between people of the same generation. It covers justice and the distribution of resources between nations. It also includes considerations of what is fair for people within any one nation.

Proximity to existing environmental problems Worldwide, people living in cities tend to be most affected by pollution, noise and the threats of chemical contamination and accident, although pollution and exposure to agricultural pesticides can be a problem in some rural areas. Urban problems arise from the concentration of industries, people and cars, and the lack of open green spaces.

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The impacts of environmental problems are not evenly distributed within cities. They are often determined by where people live. People living near or in industrial areas are more likely to suffer from air or water pollution. People living under a flight path or near a main road are more likely to suffer from noise. People in the inner city are more likely to suffer from urban decay and traffic problems. People living in the outer suburbs are more likely to suffer from lack of provision of urban infrastructure and community facilities.

Poverty Poorer people tend to suffer the burden of existing environmental problems more than others do. This is because more affluent people have greater choice about where they live: they can afford to pay more to live in areas where the environment has not been degraded. Wealthy areas are more likely to have access to environmental amenities such as parks and protected waterways. More affluent people are also better able to fight the imposition of a polluting facility in their neighbourhood because they have better access to financial resources, education, skills and the decision-making structures. This is particularly obvious in some countries where shantytowns are found. These are generally located in areas where the better off do not want to live – near garbage dumps or hazardous industrial facilities or in areas prone to flooding, landslips and other dangers. This situation is not confined to low-income countries, however. In the United Kingdom, too, ‘low-income communities are twice as likely to have a polluting factory located nearby’ (Bachram et al. 2003: 4). A Friends of the Earth study (McLaren et al. 1999) found: Over ninety per cent of London’s most polluting factories are located in communities of below average income. London is just the most extreme example. A similar pattern is found throughout England and Wales. Overall, almost two-thirds of the most polluting industrial facilities are to be found in areas of below average income … The effects are more severe in areas with multiple factories. At the extreme, Seal Sands on Teesside has 17 of the most polluting factories in one small area. The average income here is just £6,200 (just 45% of the regional average income, or 36% of the national average) and over half its households have annual incomes under £5,000.

Vulnerability Health impacts from environmental problems can also be determined by factors such as age, gender, income and health status. For example, people with existing respiratory problems may be affected more by air

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pollution, while the very young or the very old may be more vulnerable to environmental pollution in general. There are places in metropolitan Adelaide in South Australia where deaths from respiratory diseases seem to be correlated with failure to meet air quality standards and where ‘overlaying the map of factory emissions onto the distribution of clients of Meals on Wheels [a charity service for frail, aged and disabled people] shows that there is a captive population which cannot easily move away from close proximity to potentially toxic emissions’ (Falk et al. 1993: 54). Often the assessments of what is safe are based on consideration of average people of average health with ‘normal’ lifestyles. Environmental standards are often based on these averages and norms, which leaves those who vary from the norm more vulnerable. For example, people who eat higher than normal amounts of fish are more vulnerable to the effects of mercury and other fish contaminants. Similarly, those who are less than the average weight, particularly children, are more vulnerable to pesticides and other risks (Ackerman & Heinzerling 2004: 143). Children are also more vulnerable to exposure to pollution and contamination because of their developmental stage: In general, children are more vulnerable to environmental hazards than adults. Infants and children breathe, eat, and drink more than adults per unit of body weight. Their organ systems change and develop rapidly, making them vulnerable to small exposures at crucial windows of development. Children’s detoxification mechanisms are underdeveloped in some ways compared with those of adults, making them more susceptible than adults to injury from toxic exposures. Children are disproportionately exposed to some hazards because they engage in normal childhood behaviors such as playing on the ground and putting objects in their mouths. (Massey & Ackerman 2003: 3)

This means that children who are exposed to toxic chemicals may have their ability to grow, learn and play impaired, as well as suffering illnesses and disabilities that may remain with them into adulthood.

Occupation Workers in certain industries – like mining or mineral processing and the chemical industry – are often exposed to higher health risks than the rest of the community. Large proportions of the workforces in very hazardous industries are often made up of migrants who have fewer choices about their work when they first come to a country. In the USA, 7000–11 000 people die from workplace injuries and accidents annually, and another 62 000–86 000 die from diseases like cancer caused by work-related exposure to chemicals and other pollutants (Shrader-Frechette 2002: 135).

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In many countries environmental standards in workplaces are not as high as for the general environment. In developing countries, workplace standards can be almost non-existent. Kristin Shrader-Frechette (2002: 164) cites the example of a US firm that moved its asbestos facilities just across the border into Mexico, where workers are not protected by regulations. In these new facilities asbestos dust levels are not monitored, and the poorly paid workers do not wear respirators and are not told how dangerous asbestos is.

Race In some countries ethnicity, race and colour seem to be a significant factor in determining who is exposed to environmental burdens. A US EPA study has found that ‘black Americans are 79 per cent more likely than whites to live in neighbourhoods where industrial pollution is suspected of posing the greatest health danger’. In 19 states blacks were more than twice as likely to live in such neighbourhoods, and in 12 states Hispanics were more than twice as likely as non-Hispanics to live in such neighbourhoods. The neighbourhoods at risk were also the poorest, with the most unemployment (cited in Pace 2005). There is some debate about whether minorities are deliberately discriminated against or whether they suffer these environmental burdens because polluting facilities tend to be built in poor neighbourhoods. Either way, the placement of hazardous and unhealthy facilities raises equity issues and the outcome is that minorities have a greater environmental burden. Recent studies show ‘that Latinos and blacks are much more likely to develop – and die of – diseases related to pollution, like asthma’ (Featherstone 2005). Valerie Taliman (1992), a member of the Navaho nation, also used the term ‘environmental racism’ when she described the way that Indian reserves in the USA were being used to dispose of hazardous wastes. She claimed that in just two years more than 50 Indian tribes were approached by waste disposal companies offering millions of dollars in return for allowing hazardous waste facilities to be sited on their land. Indian reserves are not subject to as many environmental regulations as other parts of the nation. As a result of inequities such as these, an environmental justice movement has sprung up, particularly in the USA. In 1991 various people of colour convened the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, which formulated a set of Principles of Environmental Justice (1991). Developing countries Inequities are also caused by the export of hazardous products and wastes to developing countries. Shrader-Frechette (2002: 10, 164–5) notes that a third of the pesticides manufactured in the USA are banned there

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but are exported to poor countries. They are often imported into developing countries by US-headquartered transnational companies. Imported pesticides contribute to some half a million poisonings and 40 000 deaths each year. Similarly, although there is an international convention on trade in hazardous wastes – the Basel Convention – toxic waste from affluent nations is shipped to the Caribbean and West Africa for disposal. Poor nations in these regions are offered money in return for disposing of the waste. Although they agree to take it, there is some question as to whether citizens of those nations have given informed consent to such imports. A study by the Basel Action Network (cited in Hopkins 2005a) has found that Africa is being used as a dumping ground for electronic waste, much of it containing toxic material. Ostensibly, obsolete televisions, computers, mobile phones and other electronic equipment are shipped there for reuse and recycling, but local experts in Lagos, Nigeria, claim that three-quarters of the equipment is junk that cannot be economically repaired or recycled. It is instead mounting up in garbage tips or being burned, posing risks to the local people. Additionally, developing countries are often subject to more of the impacts of environmental degradation, more vulnerable to them and less able to respond and protect themselves from them. The populations of many poorer countries are more vulnerable to sea-level rise and other impacts of climate change, for example, even though they are least responsible for causing it, and less able to adapt because of poverty, lack of technology and population pressures: ‘those who have been the bystanders are likely to be the victims’ (Ott & Sachs 2000: 9). If sea levels rise, low-lying island and coastal communities will suffer. Those which will probably suffer most are low-income countries. It is these nations that often have the densest populations and are least able to afford mitigation measures such as structures to hold the seawater back, or be able to relocate substantial numbers of people. Even now, the densely populated nation of Bangladesh experiences storm surges as much as 160 kilometres upriver, surges which exact a heavy toll in losses of human lives, livestock and fishing vessels. Along with Bangladesh, the nations of Egypt, Gambia, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mozambique, Pakistan, Senegal, Surinam and Thailand have been identified as being the most vulnerable to a rise in sea level. Paradoxically, these countries have contributed little to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Jacobson 1990: 88).

Inequities may cause environmental problems Poverty contributes to environmental degradation because it deprives people of the choice of whether or not to be environmentally sound in

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their activities. People who cannot be sure of their next meal are likely to pour all their energies into surviving any way they can. Communities need to have a certain level of security before they will turn their attention to solving environmental problems. Affluence, of course, also contributes to environmental degradation. High levels of affluence are accompanied by high levels of consumption, which leads to more resource depletion and waste accumulation. This is demonstrated by comparing the ecological footprints of nations (see chapter 2). Many environmental problems – such as global warming and chemical contamination – are the result of affluence rather than poverty. In the past, environmental degradation and resource depletion in low-income countries have been rationalised as part of the necessary costs of economic growth. Citizens of these countries have been told that they would have to ‘grin and bear it’ while their countries industrialised. But many in those low-income countries are beginning to question this conventional argument. They argue that development does not need to be accompanied by environmental degradation. Development results in environmental degradation because of other inequities, including low prices for commodities and natural resources, trade barriers in highincome countries, a resulting reliance on resource extraction for development, and the adoption of western ways, products and technologies (Beder 1996: ch 16).

The impacts of measures to protect the environment Measures to improve environmental problems may impact more on some sectors of the community than others.

Loss of competitiveness Measures to protect the environment can affect the competitiveness of national industries in the international market when such actions are undertaken unilaterally, that is, without other nations also undertaking them. Loss of industry competitiveness can reduce a nation’s gross national product, increase its balance of trade deficit and increase national debt. Particular groups of people may suffer more than others from loss of competitiveness, including individual firms and their workers. The idea that environmental measures generally affect a company’s competitiveness is debated, however. ‘The consensus in the economics profession,’ concludes Eban Goodstein, ‘is that environmental regulation has had no reliably measurable negative impact on the competitiveness of U.S. firms.’ In fact, the extra cost to firms of complying with environmental regulations is rarely more than 2 per cent of total sales income. Goodstein’s analysis shows that in the USA at least, ‘in terms of import competition from developed countries in the 1980s, firms facing higher

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levels of regulation fared better than those without it’ (Ackerman & Massey 2002: 4; Goodstein 1997: 15; 1999: 3–4).

Loss of employment It is often argued that if environmental laws and standards are too tough, the costs of complying will be high – which could lead to a firm having to shed staff or, in an extreme case, having to shut down. But environmental regulations to control pollution may actually create more jobs than are lost. The impact of environmental regulations on employment has been greatly exaggerated by those who oppose those regulations. Environmental regulation shifts jobs but does not tend to reduce the overall level of employment. In the USA, according to Bureau of Labor Statistics, only about 1 per cent of major layoffs have been due to environmental regulations (Ackerman & Massey 2002: 3; Goodstein 1999: 3–4). Nevertheless, it is true that even if overall employment levels are not reduced by environmental measures, some workers may suffer by losing their jobs; and in times of high unemployment they may find it difficult to find other work. Unions are often concerned that measures taken to protect the environment might lead to a larger pool of unemployed, the downgrading of average wages and conditions and non-wage benefits, and a winding-down of towns and infrastructure in some areas: There will be losers as well as winners in any restructuring of our economy, regardless of whether the aggregate outcome is positive or negative. In many instances those affected will also be those with the least options in alternative employment (eg workers without tertiary or adaptable trade qualifications). (ACTU & UMFA 1992: 13)

Halting development It is argued that important benefits and jobs are lost each time a development is stopped on environmental grounds. People in poor countries claim that demands by people in affluent countries that they conserve their forests as a global resource would require them to slow economic development. They say that affluent nations cut down their own forests as part of their development process, and consume the majority of the produce from timber-felling in developing countries, so it is inequitable to demand that their forests be conserved without offering full compensation. On the other hand, forestry operations are often carried out at the expense of indigenous people who depend on the forests for their traditional lifestyles. ‘Even the possibility of their receiving financial compensation for the destruction of their forests is an unattractive proposition for most indigenous peoples, as money is seen to be destructive of traditional lifestyles every bit as much as deforestation’ (Humphreys 1999: 113).

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Shrader-Frechette (2002: 31) argues that the problem with using economic development as an argument for environmental degradation is that the supposed benefits of economic development are based on dubious assumptions which are not borne out by past experience: One doubtful premise is that economic development, accompanied by unequal environmental standards or protection, actually creates more market value than does environmentally just economic development … Another doubtful premise is that economic expansion, and its attendant inequitable pollution and development, will lead to greater equality of treatment in the long term.

Costs to disadvantaged groups Another way in which measures to protect the environment can have an impact on equity is through costs being imposed on a certain section of society whose members may not be able to afford them. Also, if prices are to rise, for example as a result of the application of the polluter pays principle, those who can barely afford such goods now will suffer. Supporters of the polluter pays principle argue that to ensure equity the poor need to be compensated with extra income support rather than subsidies being provided to the polluter to keep the price down. Income support would be more efficient, since the more affluent consumers can afford to pay the higher price, and it would also ensure the price more accurately reflected the real cost of the products (Dommen 1993: 17). In Delhi, India, which has a population of 14 million people, local groundwater and the Yamuna River have become increasingly contaminated with toxic industrial waste and pesticides. In an effort to deal with this problem the Supreme Court banned the discharge of industrial effluent into the river in 2000. That same year the government passed an act that required industry to pay half the cost of 15 new effluent treatment plants. Polluters include ‘thousands of small engineering units, textile industries, detergent makers and auto-component factories’, as well as factories carrying out electro-plating, battery recycling and leather tanning. While many of these concerns are operating illegally, stealing electricity and paying no taxes, their supporters claim that the extra costs to pay for the pollution control facilities will cause thousands of workers to lose their jobs (Devraj 2004). Displacement of local people The creation of national parks and wilderness areas can also impact unfairly on people who are displaced by those parks or whose access to traditional livelihoods is restricted as a result. In many parts of Africa, for example, national parks have been created by clearing indigenous inhabitants out of the area.

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As recently as 2004, ‘5000 people from the Kore tribe were escorted from their thatched huts in Nechisar [in Ethiopia] and dumped onto distant land owned by other rural communities’ without consultation or compensation. Locals will not even be able to walk through the newly created wildlife park to get to a nearby town (Pearce 2005c). In Kenya, between 10 000 and 50 000 people have been forced out of their homes in an environmentally sensitive forest area on the edge of the Mau Forest. Armed police evicted them at short notice, using teargas and whips, and ignoring their claims to have title deeds to their homes, which were burned down (Cawthorne 2005).

Shifting environmental problems Environmental measures can also have inequitable effects if environmental problems are shifted from one place to another, or concentrated in one place. A traditional example of this occurs when an area is sewered for the first time and the sewage is discharged into a waterway. The environment of the newly sewered area is certainly improved; but the waterway is degraded, and its users, particularly those who might draw water from it downstream, are disadvantaged. Another example of this was seen when some European nations made their factory smokestacks higher to avoid localised pollution. This served only to spread the pollution – particularly acid rain – to other countries.

Inequity in decision-making structures Inequities in power lead to inequities in people’s ability to influence decisions affecting their environment. Although there may be just reasons for economic inequality, there is little reason for political inequality. Every person should have the right to be considered in environmental decision making (see chapter 6). People should only be subjected to increased environmental burdens if they have given their informed consent, that is, if they have consented in full knowledge of the risks they are undertaking. This is a requirement of medical and legal ethics and should also be a requirement of environmental professionals, bureaucrats and politicians. Informed consent requires that: 1. full information about the risks be supplied to potential victims and decision-makers; 2. those being subjected to the risk understand the risk they are taking; 3. those consenting to the risk do so voluntarily without coercion or manipulation; 4. they are competent to give this consent. (Shrader-Frechette 2002: 77)

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People who live in areas of high unemployment and low education may not understand the risks of a proposed facility, and may be so desperate for employment opportunities that they are not really making a free choice. Similarly, where workers have to put up with hazardous work conditions in order to keep their jobs, their consent is not voluntary. Even with informed consent there are limits to what burdens can be morally imposed on people (Shrader-Frechette 2002: 142). In most countries, for example, people are not able to sell their organs, even if they wish to, and testing chemicals on humans is not allowed even if volunteers can be found. The right to life and health is paramount. In many places around the world, existing decision-making structures do not adequately represent all sectors of society. Robert Bullard (1992) argues that environmental racism in the USA, for example, causes minorities to be excluded from decision-making bodies such as company and government agency management boards, city councils and industrial commissions.

INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY Intergenerational equity refers to the need for a just distribution of rewards and burdens between generations, and fair and impartial treatment of future generations. ‘Time of birth, in other words, has no more to do with how a person should be valued than do place of birth, tribe, nationality, religion, or gender’ (Nolt 2005). However, unless substantial change occurs, and rapidly, the present generation is unlikely to pass on a healthy and diverse environment to future generations because of three main factors: Firstly, the rates of loss of animal and plant species, arable land, water quality, tropical forests and cultural heritage are especially serious. Secondly, and perhaps more widely recognised, is the fact that we will not pass on to future generations the ozone layer or global climate system that the current generation inherited. A third factor that contributes overwhelmingly to the anxieties about the first two is the prospective impact of continuing population growth and the environmental consequences if rising standards of material income around the world produce the same sorts of consumption patterns that are characteristic of the currently industrialised countries. (ESD Working Group Chairs 1992: 10)

Achieving intergenerational equity thus requires significant changes. But why care about the future? As cynics have said, ‘What has posterity ever done for me?’ After all, the people of the far-off future are strangers,

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potential people who do not yet exist and may not exist. They will be in no position to reward us for what we do for them, to punish us for our lack of care or responsibility, or to demand compensation. We don’t know what their needs, desires or values will be. How can people not yet born demand rights? And if they cannot claim rights do they have any? Although future generations do not yet exist we can be reasonably sure they will exist. And, like us, they will require clean air and water and other basic physical requirements for life. And although we don’t know who the people of the future will be – they are not individually identifiable – they can have rights as a group or class of people, rather than individually, and we can have obligations and duties towards them. What is more, morality is not dependent on identity. The murder of any person is morally wrong, no matter who that person is. Future people may not be able to claim their rights today, but others can on their behalf, and various national and international laws protect the rights of future generations. Where future generations do not have formal legal representation, people are able to make claims on their behalf using reasoning based on moral principles, such as those outlined below.

Justice According to philosopher John Rawls (quoted in Visser ’t Hooft 1999: 5), justice is about ‘the way in which the major social institutions distribute fundamental rights and duties and determine the division of advantages from social cooperation’. According to Hendrik Visser ’t Hooft, ‘a consensus is clearly emerging in contemporary society that it would be contrary to justice to ignore’ the presumed environmental needs of future generations: Our moral convictions tell us that we must share the resources of the planet, which have shown themselves to be finite, with our descendents … Each generation is thus both a beneficiary with a right to use the planet and a trustee with the obligation to care for it. (Visser ’t Hooft 1999: 3–5)

This idea of environmental resources being a ‘common heritage of mankind’ was incorporated in the 1982 UN Treaty on the Law of the Sea. A similar doctrine is that of public trust, which is incorporated into US environmental law and has been reinforced by the courts. It affirms ‘a duty of the state to protect the people’s common heritage of streams, lakes etc., surrendering the right of protection only in rare cases when the abandonment of that right is consistent with the purposes of the trust‘. The idea of a public trust or common heritage across generations means that environmental resources/values should not be destroyed merely because the majority of a current generation decides it has better uses for them (Visser ’t Hooft 1999: 35–6).

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Responsibility Responsibility arises from the power and the ability to impact and affect others, and the knowledge that what we do may affect others. A person has moral responsibility for their actions if that person: a. has, or is capable of having, knowledge of those actions; b. has the capacity to bring about these consequences; c. has the choice to do otherwise; and d. that these consequences have value significance [explained below]. (Partridge 2001: 377)

Increasingly, the activities of modern industrialised nations have impacts that are felt not only globally now, but will be felt well into the future. If we know that our actions may harm future generations, and we have a choice about whether to take those actions, then we are morally responsible for those actions. This is particularly pertinent to the environment, for many environmental impacts, such as radioactive waste disposal, global warming and the spread of chemical toxins, have long-term implications. The fact is that current generations have ‘unprecedented power to enhance or diminish the life prospects of our posterity’ and this gives us a measure of responsibility for the welfare of future generations (Partridge 1981; 1990). Criteria for judging the value significance of our actions into the future include ‘whether activities have a significant impact, either spatially or over time, whether the effects are irreversible or reversible only with unacceptable costs, and whether the effects will be viewed as significant by a substantial number of people’ (Weiss 1990). Inaction can also have consequences. Inaction can be just as irresponsible as any action, particularly if it entails allowing existing trends to continue in the knowledge that these will be harmful. The fact that the consequences of our actions or inactions will occur some time in the future does not diminish our responsibility: And, if a person is duty-bound not to cause deliberate harm during his lifetime, is he any less duty-bound to prevent such injuries that may occur after his death due to neglect during his lifetime? If one is both aware of the harm he might cause and capable of preventing it, does it matter if the calamity takes place five years after his death? Five hundred years? Five hundred thousand years? (Partridge 1990)

Because a healthy environment is a shared interest that benefits whole communities, and is often threatened by the ‘cumulative effects of human enterprise’, there is a collective responsibility to protect it.

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Individual actions can only offer limited solutions and there is a need for government action, and international cooperation (Visser ’t Hooft 1999: 42–3).

Avoiding harm Some philosophers argue that the more distant future generations are from us the less our obligation is to them, because we cannot know what their needs and wants will be nor what is good for them (Golding 1999: 69). Others argue that even if we do not know what will be good for future generations we do know what will be bad for them: Of course, we don’t know what the precise tastes of our remote descendents will be, but they are unlikely to include a desire for skin cancer, soil erosion, or the inundation of all low-lying areas as a result of the melting of the ice-caps. (Barry 1999: 84)

According to Partridge (1990): While we may share few of the aesthetic tastes, or even the cultural mores, of our remote successors, we can still surmise much regarding their fundamental needs. They will require just institutions, basic energy and material resources, a functioning atmosphere and flourishing ecosystem, and an unpolluted and unpoisoned environment.

Therefore, while we may not have positive obligations to provide for the future, we do have negative obligations to avoid actions that will harm the future. We can fairly safely assume that future generations will want a safe and diverse environment, and therefore we have an obligation to: make certain (a) that there will be future generations – which is a way of reaffirming the value we attribute to our own life; and (b) that the possibility of those generations planning for themselves is not irrevocably destroyed by our failure now to refrain from those acts that could have evil consequences for them; we have no right to preempt their choices. (Callahan 1999: 75)

We cannot just assume that future generations will have better technological and scientific means to solve the problems we leave them. For this reason we should endeavour to pass on the planet to future generations in no worse shape than previous generations passed it on to us.

International agreements Intergenerational equity has been recognised in various international agreements, including the:

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Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, 1993.

These agreements led up to the UNESCO Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations towards Future Generations (1997). The text of the declaration was adapted from a Bill of Rights for Future Generations presented to the United Nations in 1993 by the Cousteau Society (2005), together with over 9 million signatures of support from people in 106 countries. It had five articles which emphasised rights, responsibility and common heritage, including: Article 1. Future generations have a right to an uncontaminated and undamaged Earth and to its enjoyment as the ground of human history, of culture, and of the social bonds that make each generation and individual a member of one human family. Article 2. Each generation, sharing in the estate and heritage of the Earth, has a duty as trustee for future generations to prevent irreversible and irreparable harm to life on Earth and to human freedom and dignity. Article 3. It is, therefore, the paramount responsibility of each generation to maintain a constantly vigilant and prudential assessment of technological disturbances and modifications adversely affecting life on Earth, the balance of nature, and the evolution of mankind in order to protect the rights of future generations.

Today the principle of intergenerational equity is a principle of international law. ‘It finds explicit support in many international instruments, and it articulates the wider temporal horizon implicit in many forms of international cooperation on the environmental front’ (Visser ’t Hooft 1999: 26). A number of national laws and agreements also include intergenerational equity, such as Australia’s 1992 Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment (IGAE) and the US’s 1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA). Such sentiments go back as far as 1916, to the National Park Act in the USA, which charges the National Park Service with the duty of protecting the land ‘unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations’ (quoted in Partridge 1990). In general the ideals behind national parks in all countries have the same intergenerational goals.

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WHAT SHOULD BE SUSTAINED? Even if it is agreed that we have an obligation to future generations, the nature of that obligation is controversial. Do we need to do more than simply protect those aspects of the environment necessary for survival and health, such as ensuring a minimal standard of clean air and water? And what standard would that be? Which risks from hazardous and radioactive substances do we need to prevent? The problem is that protecting the interests of the future may conflict with the interests of current generations. How do we balance our obligations to current generations with our obligations to future generations when these conflict? At one extreme is the preservationist model, which requires that present generations do not further deplete any resources or destroy or alter any part of the environment. In this case an industrialised lifestyle would become impossible, and the present generations would have to make significant sacrifices, living subsistence lifestyles, to benefit future generations (Weiss 1992). At the other extreme is the opulence model, where present generations consume all they want and assume that future generations will be able to cope with the impoverished environment that remains because they will be technologically better off. Alternatively, advocates of this model assume that future generations will have the technological expertise to find new sources or substitutes for exhausted resources and extinct species (Weiss 1992). This model seems overly optimistic about the ability of wealth and technology to deal with environmental catastrophe and losses.

Weak sustainability Many economists and businesspeople argue that communities can use up natural resources and degrade the natural environment as long as they compensate for the loss with ‘human capital’ (skills, knowledge and technology) and ‘human-made capital’ (buildings, machinery, etc). This is the ‘weak sustainability’ argument. Economists often think of the environment in terms of ‘natural capital’, that is, aspects of nature that are of use to humans including minerals, biological yield potential, and pollution absorption capacity. There is also ‘cultivated capital’, which includes natural capital that has been transformed or adapted by humans. Examples include domesticated animals and plant varieties (Holland 1999: 50). These economists argue that what needs to be maintained for future generations is ‘total capital’: Total Capital = Natural Capital + Cultivated Capital + Human Capital + Human-made Capital

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In this formula the actual mix or proportions is not important. The Business Council of Australia (BCA 1991: 4), for example, has argued that: The principle of sustainable development does not require that the physical configuration of the environment or the economy’s capital stock remains constant. The current generation does not owe future generations a share of particular resources. Rather, it requires that the capacity to generate resources from the total stock of environmental, physical and human capital resources not be diminished.

Advocates of weak sustainability point out that the loss of income from a depleted resource could be compensated for by other investments which generate the same income. If the money obtained from exploiting an exhaustible resource, such as oil, is invested so that it yields a continuous flow of income, this is equivalent to holding the stock of oil constant. They argue that not only is some substitution inevitable when it comes to the commercial exploitation of minerals, but that this is consistent with intergenerational equity, ‘provided that the community returns from that exploitation are reinvested to give an equivalent income indefinitely’ (ESD Working Group Chairs 1992: 37). Economist David Pearce (1991: 2–3) says that this means that the Amazon forest can be removed so long as the proceeds from removing it ‘are reinvested to build up some other form of capital’. He points out that this principle requires that ‘environmental assets be valued in the same way as man-made assets, otherwise we cannot know if we are on a “sustainable development path”’. Weak sustainability provides a rationale for continuing to use nonrenewable resources at ever-increasing rates. ‘Inevitably, as we deplete the stock of resources, there are less resources for future generations. While this can cause temporary shortages it is not regarded as a matter of longer-term concern’ (ESD Working Groups 1991: 78–9). This is because during times of shortage the prices will go up and new reserves will be found, substitutes discovered and more efficient use encouraged. It is for this reason that Pearce and his colleagues (1989) suggest that what should remain constant is not the stocks of non-renewable resources but the economic value of the stock.

Natural limits While the economic value of natural resources can be easily replaced, their functions are less easily replaced. Most people, even economists, agree that there are limits on the extent to which natural resources can be replaced without changing some biological processes and putting ecological sustainability at risk. Pearce and his colleagues (1989), for example, argue that the requirement to keep the total amount of capital

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constant ‘is consistent with “running down” natural capital – i.e. with environmental degradation’, as long as human-made capital can be substituted for natural capital. He recognises that some environmental assets could not be ‘traded-off’ because they are essential for life-support systems and as yet they cannot be replaced. In this view, the proportion of natural to human-made capital does matter, as economist David James (1999: 156) notes: Community welfare, in the widest sense, is derived from a combination of natural and man-made capital. In achieving an acceptable balance of economic development and resource protection, and in ensuring that excessive risks of damage are minimised, the practical policy issue to be addressed is how to define and achieve an optimal or acceptable mix of both kinds of capital.

Others advise caution with respect to declining natural capital. ‘As an economist I would say that loss of natural capital can be compensated for by human made capital but in practice I would advise policy-makers to avoid depletion of natural resources unless there was a good reason’ (Harris 1991). In fact, the precautionary principle would prevent us from assuming that natural resources can be replaced without good evidence that they can. Despite holding that stocks of non-renewable resources need not remain constant, Pearce and his colleagues (1989: ch 2) give the following reasons for maintaining a minimal level of natural capital:

Non-substitutability There are many types of environmental assets for which there are no substitutes: for example, the ozone layer, the climate-regulating functions of ocean phytoplankton, the watershed protection functions of tropical forests, the pollution-cleaning and nutrient-trap functions of wetlands. For those people who believe that animals and plants have an intrinsic value, there can be no substitute. Uncertainty We cannot be certain whether or not we will be able to substitute for other environmental assets in the future and what the consequences of continually degrading nature will be. Scientists do not know enough about the functions of natural ecosystems and the possible consequences of depleting and degrading natural capital. And ‘if we do not know an outcome it is hardly consistent with rational behaviour to act as if the outcome will be a good one’. Irreversibility The depletion of natural capital can lead to irreversible losses such as the loss of species and habitats, which once lost cannot be recreated through

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man-made capital. Other losses are not irreversible but repair may take centuries – for example, damage to the ozone layer and soil degradation.

Equity There is an equity issue involved in replacing natural resources and environmental assets – that are currently freely available to everyone – with human-made resources that have to be bought and may only be accessible to some people in the future. Also, as we saw earlier in this chapter, poor people are more often affected by unhealthy environments than wealthier people. A substitution of wealth for natural resources does not mean that those who suffer are the same people as those who will benefit from the additional wealth. Resilience Human-made capital often lacks an important feature of natural capital – diversity. Diverse ecological systems are more resilient to shocks and stress. Biological diversity ensures that ecosystems are robust and more likely to survive disruption, disease and natural disasters. Even in economic systems, diversity helps to spread risks and maintain options.

Strong sustainability Understandably, environmentalists generally reject the concept of weak sustainability even if it incorporates the idea of maintaining minimal environmental functions. They argue that the environment should not be degraded for future generations, even if the future generations are compensated with greater human-made capital. They claim that human welfare can only be maintained over generations if the environment is not degraded; in economists’ terms, if natural capital is not declining. They point out that we do not know what the safe limits of environmental degradation are; if those as yet unknown safe limits are crossed, the options for future generations will be severely limited. Secondly, many environmentalists do not agree that human and natural capital are interchangeable. They believe that a loss of environmental quality cannot be substituted with a gain in human or humanmade capital without loss of welfare. Therefore, they argue, future generations should not inherit a degraded environment, no matter how many extra sources of wealth might be available to them. This is referred to as ‘strong sustainability’. The production and consumption values and absorption capacity provided by natural capital may be able to be replaced or extended, particularly through technological innovation. In this way it may make sense to speak of human capital compensating for natural capital. But this is not the case with other environmental values. To maintain recreational, spiritual and aesthetic values the environment must not be spoiled (Holland 1999: 56–9).

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If an old growth forest is cut down, a commercial tree plantation may replace much of its economic value, but a plantation is unlikely to recreate the original ecosystem and support the biodiversity provided by the natural forest. Nor will it have the beauty or spiritual value of the original forest. The plantation will be an impoverished version of the original forest, with many of the values associated with forests gone (Humphreys 1999: 113). Should we preserve these non-economic values of the environment for future generations? How can we know what sorts of environmental values future generations will appreciate? Visser ’t Hooft (1999: 22) asks: ‘If a majority is convinced that a worthwhile life depends on being able to walk in parks and forests, must it anticipate a possible fading out of that conviction in the minds of posterity?’ Similarly, Bryan Norton (1999: 132) asks: … suppose that our generation converts all wilderness areas and natural communities into productive mines, farmland, production forests, or shopping centres, and suppose we do so efficiently, and that we are careful to save a portion of the profits, and invest them wisely leaving the future far more wealthy than we are. Does it not make sense to claim that, in doing so, we harmed future people, not economically, but in the sense that we seriously and irreversibly narrowed their range of choices and experiences? A whole range of human experience would have been obliterated …

Future people who have never experienced wilderness would not miss it and would make do with human-made landscapes. They would not know they were worse off. However, current generations would clearly have diminished the range of future choices and opportunities and impoverished future lives. A professor of international and environmental law, Edith Brown Weiss (1990), argues that intergenerational equity consists of preserving options, environmental quality and access for future generations. Overdevelopment reduces options and reduces diversity. The principle of ‘conservation of access’ implies that current generations should ensure that future generations can also enjoy this access. Equity and fairness would seem to require that future generations not only be able to subsist but that they have the same level of opportunities to thrive and be happy as current generations. Further Reading Partridge, Ernest (2006) ‘The Gadfly Papers’, Principles of environmental justice, Environmental Justice Net, October 1991,

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Shrader-Frechette, Kristin (2002) Environmental Justice: Creating Equality, Reclaiming Democracy, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Smith, Mark J (ed.) (1999) Thinking Through the Environment, The Open University, London & New York. UNESCO Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations Towards Future Generations, 1997, Visser ’t Hooft, Hendrik Ph (1999) Justice to Future Generations and the Environment, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht. Weiss, Edith Brown (1990) Intergenerational fairness and the rights of future generations, Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations, April,

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5

HUMAN RIGHTS PRINCIPLES

Human rights are entitlements based on morality, justice and fairness which, collectively, the nations of the world have agreed all people ought to have. They include the rights to life, liberty, health and wellbeing. Human rights apply to every human being throughout their life, no matter where they live or what their religion, occupation, race, colour, age or gender. (The gender bias found in some of the language used in the early human rights declarations and covenants should be seen only as an artefact of the times in which the rights were drafted.) Human rights are regarded as essential to human dignity and are inalienable, which means they cannot be taken away, sold, or given away. Some rights are non-derogable, which means that they cannot be limited in any way, even in times of national emergency or war. Nonderogable rights include the right to life, the right to be free from slavery and the right to be free from torture. Other rights can only be limited or denied for reasons that have to do with the greater welfare of the community or the protection of others’ human rights. Such limitations are detailed in human rights treaties, and no other limits are allowed. In other words, rights should always have priority over the preferences and desires of others, and governments have a duty to ‘respect, protect and promote them’ (Merrills 1996: 25–7; Rayner 2005a). Human rights are supposed to have absolute priority over any political lobbying or economic trade-off. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, after World War II. Before the war it had been thought that rights were a matter for national governments to decide and implement, but the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis during the war showed that this could leave millions of people

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without even the most fundamental rights. The United Nations was formed in 1945 in an effort to avoid future wars and to enable nations to sort out their differences in an international forum. The UN Charter affirmed ‘faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small’, and paved the way for the establishment of an international Commission on Human Rights (Bailey 2005). The Universal Declaration (UDHR 1948) was compiled as a ‘relatively short, inspirational and energising document’ that could be easily understood by anyone. Being a declaration it was not binding on the countries which signed it, as a treaty would be, but nevertheless it was a significant statement of moral and political principles that has formed the basis of human rights treaties and national constitutions since. It has become part of international customary law. As customary law, all countries are bound by it, whether or not they have agreed to it (Bailey 2005). The Universal Declaration was later reinforced by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. These covenants, adopted by the UN in 1966, elaborate the rights in the Universal Declaration and are binding on the states that have signed them. Ratified or approved by over 130 nations, they came into force in 1976. The Universal Declaration was reaffirmed in 1993 by more than 150 nations at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (Gleeson 2005). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights together with the two International Covenants make up the International Bill of Human Rights (see figure 5.1 below).

Figure 5.1 International Bill of Rights

International Bill of Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

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The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR 1966) includes the rights to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; freedom of association and peaceful assembly; the assumption of innocence until proven guilty at a fair trial; freedom from arbitrary arrest or detention; freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment; freedom of movement to and from one’s home nation; and freedom from slavery or forced labour. Countries which have signed up to it guarantee that every citizen will have these rights protected without discrimination and that anyone who feels that this is not the case is able to go to court to remedy the situation. Anyone who is unable to get redress for a breach of rights in their own country can complain to the UN’s Human Rights Committee, which was established in 1977 to monitor whether governments are complying with their obligations under the Covenant (Rayner 2005b). The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR 1966) includes rights to an adequate standard of living, health, education, social security, work in proper working conditions for fair wages, participation in cultural life, and the benefits of social progress. These are rights that place an obligation on governments to adopt policies to ensure that individuals and groups are equally able to develop to their full potential. Because such policies cost money that a government may not have, the Covenant does not demand that these rights be guaranteed immediately but progressively, depending on the resources governments have available to achieve them. Nevertheless, governments are expected to spend money on ensuring the fulfilment of these obligations ahead of other non-rights-based objectives (Boyle 1996: 46). Governments have to report on their progress in this to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural rights but, unlike under the CCPR, ‘there is no mechanism for individuals to make complaints about the breach of these rights’ (Rayner 2005b). The International Bill of Rights therefore ‘defines in law the limits of authority that can be imposed on individuals, as well as the basic necessities required by them, so that all individual people, in every place, and at all times, can retain their human dignity’ (Gosden 2000: 37; 2001). These rights ‘protect the vulnerable and marginalized from being exploited or otherwise made to suffer under the self-interested politics of the powerful’ (Hancock 2003: 2). The rights in the Bill of Rights were declared by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1968 to be indivisible, and by the UN General Assembly in 1984 and 1986 to be interrelated. This means the various rights are related to each other, complementary to each other and reinforce each other and cannot be separated off from each other (Trindade 1998: 120). The right to health is most obviously indivisible and interrelated to the right to life.

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There are now many human rights conventions, treaties and instruments at global and regional levels. Other international human rights conventions include: • • • • •

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (entry into force: 1951) Convention against Torture (entry into force: 1984) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (entry into force: 1969) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (entry into force: 1981) Convention on the Rights of the Child (entry into force: 1989).

Various regions have also established human rights agreements, including: • • •

European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 American Convention on Human Rights, 1969 African Charter of Human and Peoples’ Rights, 1981.

Many nations have also incorporated human rights into their constitutions. ‘Respect for human rights is becoming a universal principle of good government’ (Rayner 2005a).

ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION The relationship between human rights and the environment was studied by the Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment for the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Madame Zhohra Ksentini (1994), from 1991 to 1994. She reported on the human rights violations that result from environmental degradation, including climate change, deforestation, pollution and loss of biological diversity. Not only are human rights dependent on environmental protection but environmental degradation often entails the trampling of human rights. She noted that regional and international human rights bodies were increasingly allowing people to bring complaints of human rights violations based on environmental issues. In 2002 a UN expert group (UNHCHR 2002) concluded: that respect for human rights is broadly accepted as a precondition for sustainable development, that environmental protection constitutes a precondition for the effective enjoyment of human rights pro-

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tection, and that human rights and the environment are interdependent and interrelated. These features are now broadly reflected in national and international practices and developments.

Similarly, Klaus Toepfer (quoted in CEDHA 2002b), Executive Director of the UN Environmental Programme, stated in 2001: Human rights cannot be secured in a degraded or polluted environment. The fundamental right to life is threatened by soil degradation and deforestation and by exposures to toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes and contaminated drinking water … Environmental conditions clearly help to determine the extent to which people enjoy their basic rights to life, health, adequate food and housing, and traditional livelihood and culture. It is time to recognize that those who pollute or destroy the natural environment are not just committing a crime against nature, but are violating human rights as well.

A growing body of case law and more recent human rights agreements affirm that environmental protection is necessary for some of the most fundamental human rights, such as the rights to life, human health and wellbeing (UNHCHR 2002).

The rights to life, health and wellbeing Life The right to life is found in most human rights treaties. It can be argued that any environmental disaster or degradation that results in death breaches human rights. The UN Human Rights Commission recognises that environmental violations such as the transboundary movement of hazardous waste ‘constitute a serious threat to the human rights to life, good health and a sound environment for everyone’ (quoted in CEDHA 2002b). The question is, does the right to life require governments to prevent people losing their lives from environmental causes, through ensuring clean air and water and reducing risks from other environmental contaminants? According to the Human Rights Committee, it does. Governments are expected to take positive measures to reduce infant mortality and increase life expectancy, and consequently are obliged to report on the public health and environmental measures they are undertaking to this end to the Committee (Churchill 1996: 90). In 1980 the Port Hope Environmental Group complained to the Committee on behalf of present and future generations that the storage of radioactive waste near their homes in Ontario, Canada, posed a threat to their lives and those of future generations and therefore breached the

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Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. While recognising that this was a legitimate complaint the Committee found that there were other avenues of appeal within the Canadian judicial system, including invoking the Canadian Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, that the group could use to remedy the situation, and which they had not yet tried (Churchill 1996: 91; UNHRC 1982). More recently the Federal High Court in Nigeria has ruled that gasflaring by oil and gas companies violates constitutional rights to life and dignity. The gas-flaring by companies such as the Shell oil company, which continues in Nigeria despite an official ban, causes people to be exposed to toxic chemicals that pose serious health risks. The ruling has been contested by Shell (Hopkins 2005b).

Health and wellbeing The Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes a person’s ‘right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family’ (Article 25). In addition, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights includes the following provisions: The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international co-operation based on free consent. (Article 11) The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. The steps to be taken by the States Parties to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right shall include those necessary for … the improvement of all aspects of environmental and industrial hygiene. (Article 12)

Although Article 11 is not specific about environmental protection, it is clear that an adequate standard of living will include a minimum environmental quality. What is more, the environment must be free of pollution and contaminants that might impinge on the right to the highest attainable standard of health in order to comply with Article 12, which does call for environmental improvement. The Commission on Human Rights resolved in 1991 ‘that all individuals are entitled to live in an environment adequate for their health and well-being’ (quoted in Cameron & MacKenzie 1996: 130). The Inter-American Commission has found that:

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[the] realization of the right to life, and to physical security and integrity is necessarily related to and in some ways dependent upon one’s physical environment [and c]onditions of severe environmental pollution, which may cause serious physical illness, impairment and suffering on the part of the local populace, are inconsistent with the right to be respected as a human being (quoted in CEDHA 2002b).

Right to clean water Interestingly, while the international covenants include a right to adequate food, they do not include a right to clean water. It may be that food was supposed to include water, or that in earlier times it was thought that water, like air, was so fundamental that it went without saying that it was implied in the rights to life, health and wellbeing (Gleick 1999). One might assume that other environmental benefits are likewise implied by other human rights. The 1977 Mar del Plata Declaration states that ‘all peoples, whatever their stage of development and their social and economic conditions, have the right to have access to drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to their basic needs’. The UN Convention on the Law of the NonNavigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997) also states that where there are conflicts over water use, priority should be given to ‘the requirements of vital human needs’, including drinking water and water to produce enough food to prevent starvation (quoted in Gleick 1999). The right to clean water is explicitly included in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF 1989), which recognises the extra vulnerability of children to environmental factors and, being of more recent origin, is more specific about what is required to achieve the right to health with respect to environmental protection: 1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health … 2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures: (a) To diminish infant and child mortality; … (b) … (c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking-water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental pollution …

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Right to a healthy environment The first regional charter to incorporate environmental requirements was the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR 1981), which states that ‘All peoples shall have the right to a general satisfactory environment favorable to their development’ (Article 24). An addition to the American Convention on Human Rights, the 1988 San Salvador Protocol (which came into force in 1999), similarly includes environmental requirements: 1. Everyone shall have the right to live in a healthy environment and to have access to basic public services. 2. The States Parties shall promote the protection, preservation and improvement of the environment.

Like the Covenant on Social Economic and Cultural Rights, this right to a healthy environment is limited by the resources available to a nation to achieve it. It is a progressive right rather than an immediate one. This means that for the poorer countries in South America, little will actually be done to advance this right (Churchill 1996: 99–100). However, the Awas Tingni people of Nicaragua have been able to use the San Salvador Protocol in a landmark case in the Inter-American Court to stop logging in their territories. The logging had been permitted by the government without consultation with the Awas Tingni, who argued that it violated their rights to cultural integrity, religion, equal protection and participation in government (CEDHA 2002; Taillant 2004: 28).

The rights to privacy, family life, and peaceful enjoyment of property The European Convention on Human Rights (Council of Europe 1950) has been used as a basis of complaint by those living near airports. It states: 1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. 2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others (Article 8). Complainants have argued that the noise pollution from airports interferes with this right. Some such cases have been settled with compensation. However, in a case involving Heathrow Airport, the European

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Commission found that the complainants’ rights had been breached but that this was justified under clause 2 of the article above because the economic wellbeing of the nation depended on the airport and the complainants could move elsewhere (Churchill 1996: 91–3). In a contrasting case in 1994, Lopez-Ostra v. Spain, the European Court of Human Rights found that the Spanish authorities had breached the human rights of a resident living near a tannery waste-treatment plant. The resident had suffered serious health problems as a result of the fumes from the plant and the Court ordered that she be compensated because the authorities had failed to find ‘a fair balance between the interest of the town’s economic well-being and the applicant’s effective enjoyment of her right to respect for her home and private and family life’ (Churchill 1996: 94). This right to be free of interference with one’s home and property is therefore limited, but the burdens on individuals must not be unreasonable. Similarly, environmental protection measures that interfere with a person’s property can be justified in terms of protection of health or the economic wellbeing of the wider community (Churchill 1996: 94–5).

The right to self-determination The international covenants have a common first article stating: 1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development. 2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence … (Article 1)

This article requires some protection of the environment to ensure it is able to support people – not only in terms of subsistence but also in terms of economic, social and cultural development – and that local people are able to choose how to deal with natural resources on their lands. As the global environment is progressively degraded it is those peoples who subsist most closely to nature – the fishing communities, forest-dwelling peoples and subsistence hunters and farmers – who are most affected. The Inuit people of Alaska, northern Canada and the far east of the Russian Federation, for example, depend on their frozen environment for their sustenance and hunting culture. But global warming is causing the ice to thin out, which in turn is threatening the animals that

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live in these areas, including seals, walruses and polar bears. The Inuit can no longer predict the weather patterns and the conditions of their environment. The areas that were safe to cross in earlier times are becoming dangerous, killing some hunters who fall through the ice (Watt-Cloutier 2004: 10): Inuit believe there is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that the failure to take remedial action by those nations most responsible for the problem does constitute a violation of their human rights – specifically the rights to life, health, culture, means of subsistence, and property.

Because the survival, culture and self-determination of indigenous peoples is often so dependent on their local environment, their rights depend more closely on environmental protection than most other peoples. Many indigenous people have a special relationship to the natural environment which is central to their identity and culture. The International Labour Organization’s Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (ILO 1991) accords indigenous peoples special collective rights that are distinct from those applying to minority groups and additional to the universal rights applying to all humans. This convention states: 1. Special measures shall be adopted as appropriate for safeguarding the persons, institutions, property, labour, cultures and environment of the peoples concerned. 2. Such special measures shall not be contrary to the freelyexpressed wishes of the peoples concerned … (Article 4)

The right of indigenous peoples to self-determination in terms of social, cultural and political organisation and development, and control over their own land, reinforces the right of all people to self-determination as stated in the international covenants, while recognising their special relationship with and dependence on the land (MacKay 2002: 10–11).

Conflicting rights Indigenous peoples’ rights include the rights to hunt, fish and exploit their local resources, activities which may be at odds with environmental goals. In Africa, for example, over 100 000 of the pastoral Maasai people have been forced to leave their homes by governments establishing or extending national parks and conservation areas. The Maasai people have to subsist on ever-decreasing territories, with declining herds. Their land is particularly attractive for conservation because their practices have enabled wildlife to flourish. Generally they have had no say in government decisions about conservation and have received little

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or no compensation for their loss of land rights and livelihood (Veit & Benson 2004). ‘Human rights activists see the challenge as protecting [the] environment for people and not protecting [the] environment from people’. Nevertheless, human rights and environmental protection can conflict. In the short term, the problem of human survival may conflict with ‘long-term ecological security’, in that the need for food and energy may cause people to disregard the health of the local environment (Dias 2000). The right to ‘continuous improvement of living conditions’ could be interpreted as ever-increasing consumerism, which is of course detrimental to the environment. Similarly, the right to development (DRD 1986) can be seen as conflicting with environmental protection where development is interpreted narrowly as depending on environmentally damaging technologies and activities. Some argue that environmental degradation is the necessary price paid to achieve economic development and increased prosperity, and that efforts to impose environmental obligations on developing nations are in essence a way of holding up their development. However, as Victor Ricco (2003: 2) of the Argentinian Centre for Human Rights and Environment argues: What good is economic development if we decrease our quality of life, if we cannot drink clean and safe drinking water, if we cannot breathe clean and safe air, if we do not have clean lands for our families and communities to grow and develop?

Potential conflict, however, is not a reason to neglect human rights that may give rise to that conflict. There have always been conflicts between different human rights and so rights have to be balanced against each other. It is for this reason that some individual human rights can be limited by the need for public order, morality and public health. One criterion which has been suggested by scholars for balancing rights is to prioritise basic needs and survival, which is another way of giving precedence to the right to life. This would place the value of increasing consumption below the value of a toxic-free environment, for example (Hancock 2003: 6–7, 16).

ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS As we have seen, the environment is protected to some extent by existing human rights, some of which explicitly refer to environmental protection while others imply environmental protection. Other human rights can be reinterpreted to give them an environmental dimension so that they

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include a concern for environmental protection. For example, the right to equality can be interpreted as a ‘right to equal access to, and protection of, environmental resources’ (Anderson 1996: 8). Jan Hancock (2003: 1–3), in Environmental Human Rights, has argued that there need to be two new universal human rights: ‘(i) to an environment free from toxic pollution and (ii) to ownership rights of natural resources’. She argues that in capitalist societies, environmental protection is relegated to secondary considerations, subordinate to economic considerations, and that unless there are human rights to a healthy environment, this will continue, at the expense of the most vulnerable people in society. New human rights have in fact been developed that explicitly recognise the importance of the environment to humans. The Stockholm Declaration (1972) created a right to the environment. Agreed to at a UN Conference on the Human Environment, it stated that: Both aspects of man’s environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights – even the right to life itself. (Preface) Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. (Principle 1)

In 1984 the OECD agreed that the right to a ‘decent’ environment was a fundamental human right (Bosselmann 2005). A decade later the Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Environment, Madame Ksentini (quoted in Robinson 2002), claimed that the right to ‘conservation’ and ‘prevention’ of ecological harm was both an individual and a collective human right. Her final report (Ksentini 1994) included Draft Principles on Human Rights and the Environment (1994), put together by an expert group, which basically reinterpreted human rights in terms of environmental concerns. These Draft Principles have not yet been adopted.

National constitutions The right to a healthy environment has nevertheless been incorporated into the constitutions of more than 90 nations since 1992, including nearly all constitutions enacted since that time (Robinson 2002). For example, the Argentinian Constitution gives all residents ‘the right to a healthy, balanced environment’ (article 31) and the Korean Constitution similarly gives citizens ‘the right to a healthy and pleasant environment’ (Chapter 11, article 35) (quoted in Dias 2000). The Brazilian Constitution (quoted in Bosselmann 2005) states:

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Everyone has a right to an ecologically balanced environment, an asset for common use by the people, and essential to the wholesome quality of life. This imposes upon Public Authorities and the community the obligation to defend and preserve it for present and future generations.

Other nations have interpreted the right to life, health and family life that is already in their constitutions as necessitating a healthy environment. This is particularly the case in South Asia and Latin America (Robinson 2002). In India, for example, the courts have found that the right to life includes the right to live in a clean, pollution-free, healthy environment (Dias 2000). One of the earliest cases where environmental human rights were tested was in Turkey, where the new constitution protects Turkish citizens’ rights to a healthy environment. Farmers took the French-based mining company Eurogold to court for polluting their environment, and won (Sachs 1997). Most recently France has adopted an environmental charter (Charte de l’environnement 2005) as part of its constitution. It was passed at a joint sitting of parliament in 2005 by a vote of 531 to 21. The charter guarantees every citizen the right to live in a balanced and healthy environment and embodies various environmental principles, including the polluter pays principle, the precautionary principle, the right to information, and an obligation to look after the needs of future generations (Case 2005). Some argue that the right to a healthy environment cannot be enforced because of the difficulty of coming to an agreed definition of what comprises a ‘healthy environment’ or a ‘satisfactory environment’. There will always be debate about what constitutes such terms. The ‘threshold below which the level of environmental quality must fall before a breach of the individual human right will have occurred’ is not defined, nor agreed upon at an international level (Korsah-Brown 2002: 81). However, the issue of whether a right is enforceable, or whether a breach of a right can be decided by the courts (its justiciability), should not determine whether a right exists and/or should be recognised (Trindade 1998: 135).

The rights of others It has been argued that a human rights approach to environmental protection is particularly anthropocentric, that is human-centred. In other words, the environment is only protected to the extent that it serves human needs. Many environmentalists believe that other species should also have rights, particularly the rights to life, existence and wellbeing. They argue that the natural world has an intrinsic worth that does not depend on the value humans place on it. They point out that a purely

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human rights approach would still allow much environmental degradation to continue (Anderson 1996: 14; Bosselmann 2005). However, whereas once it was thought that a pollution-free environment was all that was necessary for human wellbeing, modern thought is increasingly recognising that humans are a part of the natural world and that their welfare is dependent on the health of the ecosystems in which they live. For example, the Draft Principles on Human Rights and the Environment (1994) include the protection of flora and fauna: ‘All persons have the right to protection and preservation of the air, soil, water, sea-ice, flora and fauna, and the essential processes and areas necessary to maintain biological diversity and ecosystems.’ The rights of future generations are also unclear in the arena of human rights. Such rights would have to be considered as collective rights, but who would be appropriate to ‘claim and exercise’ the rights of future generations (Merrills 1996: 32–3)? Thus we can see that human rights and even environmental human rights, while necessary, are not sufficient to protect the environment. Other principles, such as environmental sustainability and intergenerational equity, also have to be applied. The Aarhus Convention (1998) ‘is a new kind of environmental agreement’ that ‘links environmental rights to human rights’. Adopted in 1998 by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, the Convention covers access to information, public participation in decision making, and access to justice in environmental matters. It is covered in chapter 6 as part of the discussion on the participation principle, which includes both the right to information and the right to public participation. Further Reading Bosselmann, Klaus (2005) ‘Human rights and the environment: redefining fundamental principles?’ University of Melbourne, viewed 9 April,

Boyle, AE & MR Anderson (eds) (1996) Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Center for Human Rights and Environment (2006) Publications by CEDHA,

Draft Principles on Human Rights and the Environment, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/9, Annex I (1994), University of Minnesota Human Rights Library,

Ksentini, Fatma Zohra (1994) Final report – review of further developments in fields with which the sub-commission has been concerned: human rights and the environment, Commission on Human Rights, 6 July 1994,