Fenaroli's Handbook of Flavor Ingredients, Fourth Edition

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F E NA RO L I ’ S

HANDBOOK OF

FLAVOR INGREDIENTS F O U RT H E D I T I O N

George A. Burdock, Ph.D.

CRC PR E S S Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof. Dr. [Handbook of flavor ingredients] Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients. — 4th ed. / by George A. Burdock. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-0946-8 (alk. paper) 1. Flavoring essences—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of flavor ingredients. II. Burdock, George A. III. Title. TP418 .F46 2001 664′.5—dc21

2001043274

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2002 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0946-8 Library of Congress Card Number 2001043274 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper

DEDICATION

Dedicated to Ioana, Meredith and Mike; and to the memory of Silvia.

PREFACE Since publication of the first edition of the Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients in 1971, Fenaroli’s has remained the standard reference for flavor ingredients throughout the world. Each subsequent edition has listed more substances, including those conferred food additive status, substances Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by qualified scientists (including the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association (FEMA) Expert Panel) and those substances having undergone GRAS Notification with FDA. This edition is likewise expanded with over 200 new entries, including many botanicals and other natural substances. The addition of botanicals is a response to an expanded readership with an interest in dietary supplements, in which a number of flavoring botanicals serve a dual role.

GRAS ≠ Dietary Supplement and Other Terms of Art, Science and Regulation The reader is cautioned that GRAS status and approval for use as a dietary supplement1 should not be confused, for they are not the same and not even related.2 Both the statutory and regulatory languages are very clear in making the distinction between these two entities. Even the standard for determining safety of GRAS vs. dietary supplements is different (a two-tiered standard, GRAS substances are held to a higher standard of safety).3 For the same reasons, dietary supplements are not GRAS (nor are food additives, for that matter) and cannot be added to food for the purpose of providing a dietary supplement.4 The reader should also note that a substance is GRAS for no other purpose and at no other amount (i.e., level) than for which it was approved. The position of FDA was reasserted with the following statement: It has been too often assumed that the GRAS substance may be used in any food, at any level for any purpose. As a result, the uses of some GRAS food ingredients have proliferated to the point where the GRAS status was brought into serious question. (Federal Register 39:34194-5, 1974) There are, of course, exceptions to all of the preceding, but each must be evaluated according to its own merits, and for these judgments, the opinion of experts in toxicology and regulations should be sought out. Frequently asked questions regarding the meaning of “safe,” “common knowledge,” “notified substance,” etc. are addressed in 62 Fed. Reg. 18937 (April 17, 1997) or log onto www.burdockgroup.com.

1 Or more appropriately, lack of objection by FDA. 2 For a definition of GRAS, see the definition of “food additive” in section 201(s) of the Federal Food Drug and

Cosmetic Act as Amended. For a definition of a dietary supplement, see section 201(ff) of the Act.

3 The reader is referred to a discussion of this distinction (Burdock, G.A. (2000). Dietary supplements and lessons to

be learned from GRAS, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 31:68-76). Copies are also available upon request at www.burdockgroup.com.

4 A “nutrient supplement” may be added to food, but this is also distinct from a dietary supplement. See 21 CFR

§170.3(o)(20) for a definition.

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Safety-In-Use Most, but not all, of the ingredients cited in this book are either foods or products thereof, generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or have food additive status. Also, as noted above, there are exceptions to every rule and this is no less true in determinations of safety. Therefore, while there is an obligation on the original approving party to ensure safety-in-use at the time of approval, there is no assurance that all scientific data continue to support the original determination. For example, safrole, coumarin and cinnamyl anthranilate, all once commonly used, are now prohibited from addition to food by FDA (21 CFR part 189). Likewise, FEMA has withdrawn GRAS status for nine substances, including alknet root extract (FEMA No. 2016), 2-methyl-5-vinylpyrazine (FEMA No. 3211), musk ambrette (FEMA No. 2758) and o-vinylanisole (FEMA No. 3248). Because not all substances continue to enjoy confirmation of safety-in-use and because the FDA regulations place squarely the responsibility for insuring the safety-in-use of a substance on the user, the reader is urged to make a determination of safety based on contemporary data, not simply historical information that may well be outdated.

Sources and Information It was not possible in all cases to obtain details regarding specifications, approved uses, etc., so otherwise available information was used. For example, while FEMA publishes use levels and categories of use for GRAS substances (in the journal Food Technology), FEMA has not made equally available information such as complete specifications or identification (e.g., CAS numbers) for the substances upon which it has conferred GRAS status. In all cases, where critical information was not available, a good faith effort was made to obtain information from the public venue with the assumption these data represent the articles in commerce. Sources of information include, but are not limited to, the following: Arctander, S. (1960). Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin. Arctander, Publisher, Elizabeth, NJ. Arctander, S. (1994). Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (Aroma Chemicals). Allured Publishing, Carol Stream, IL. Ashurst, P.R. (ed.) (1999). Food Flavorings. (3rd ed.). Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD. Bauer, K. et al. (1997). Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials. (3rd ed.). Wiley-VCH, New York. Bolens Aroma Chemical Information Service (1999). Volatile Compounds in Food. The Netherlands. Budvari, S. et al. (eds.) (2000). Merck Index (12th ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBase, Boca Raton, FL. Burdock, G.A. (1997). Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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Burnham, T. (ed.) (1999). Facts and Comparisons. The Review of Natural Products. Facts and Comparisons, Wolters Kluwer Company, St. Louis, MO. Clydesdale, F. (1997). Food Additives: Toxicology, Regulation and Properties. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Code of Federal Regulations (2000). Title 21 FDA. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Committee on Food Chemical Codex (1996). Food Chemicals Codex. National Academy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Council of Europe (2000). Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances. Strasbourg. Council of Europe (2000). Natural Sources of Flavourings. Report No. 1. Strasbourg. DeRovira, D.A. (1999). The Dictionary of Flavors. Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull, CT. Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.) (1978). Compilation of Odor and Taste Threshold Values Data. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. Food and Drug Administration (1996). Inactive Ingredient Guide. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Management. Division of Drug Information Resources. Rockville, MD. Foster, S. (ed.) (1992). Herbs of Commerce (1992). American Herbal Products Association, Austin, TX. Lucas, C.D. et al. (1999). Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association of the United States 1995 Poundage and Technical Effects Update Survey. Washington, D.C. Mosciano, G. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21(4):51-55; (5):49-54; (6):49-52. Mosciano, G. et al. (1989). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 14(6):47-55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1990). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 15(1):19-22; (2):69-73; (3):51-54; (4):59-61; (5):47-49; (6):35-38. Mosciano, G. et al. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 16(1):31-33; (2):49-54; (3):79-81; (4):45-47; (5):71-73; (6):43-46. Mosciano, G. et al. (1992). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 17(1):41-44; (2):33-35; (3):57-59; (4):33-36; (5):127-129; (6):41-43. Mosciano, G. et al. (1993). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 18 (1):43-45; (2):38-41; (3):53-55; (4):51-53; (5):39-41; (6):33-35.

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Mosciano, G. et al. (1994). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 19(1):27-29; (2):55-57; (3):51-53; (4):45-47; (5):79-81; (6):53-55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1995). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 20(1):31-33; (2):37-40; (3):63-65; (4):23-26; (5):89-92; (6):49-51. Mosciano, G. et al. (1996). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21(1):33-35; (2):47-49; (3):51-54. Mosciano, G. et al. (2000). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 25(5):72-78; (6):26-31. Mosciano, G. et al. (2001). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 26(1):52-53; (2):40-43. Newberne, P. et al. (1999). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 18. GRAS substances. Food Technology 52(9):65-92. Newberne, P. et al. (2000). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 19. GRAS substances. Food Technology 54(6):66-84. Smith, R.L. and Ford, R.A. (1993). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 16. GRAS substances. Food Technology 47(6):104-117. Smith, R.L. et al. (1996). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 17. GRAS substances. Food Technology 50(10):72-78, 80-81. Tainter, D.R. and Grenis, A.T. (1993). Spices and Seasonings. VCH Publishers, New York. VanGemert, L.J. (ed.) (1999). Compilations of Odour Threshold Values in Air and Water. TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute. Boelens Aroma Chemical Information Service, The Netherlands.

A diligent effort was made to obtain accurate information and to proof that information prior to publication; however, the author and publisher make or offer no warranties as to the representations provided herein.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editor would like to thank Drs. Madhusudan Soni and Alan Hood whose tireless efforts represent the core of this edition. Thanks also to Dr. James Barnett, Ivan Peterson, Erica Dineson and Christina Abramowicz for their contributions including, but not limited to, data gathering, data entry and editing. Thanks also to Drs. Peter Baume and Maurice Wagner and all those who provided help and information for this and the previous edition. Thanks are also extended to the staff at CRC Press, including James Yanchak for his technical expertise, Naomi Lynch for her editorial work, Naomi Rosen for her administrative help and Carol Hollander, without whose deft management none of this would have been possible. Thanks also to those who have made suggestions for improvements since the last edition. In contemplation of the next edition, I encourage those with suggestions for corrections, revisions or additions to contact me at the following address:

George A. Burdock, Ph.D., D.A.B.T. 780 US Highway 1, Suite 300 Vero Beach, Florida 32962 www.burdockgroup.com

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THE AUTHOR George A. Burdock, Ph.D. is a principal in the toxicology consulting firm of the Burdock Group, located in Vero Beach, Florida. He is an internationally recognized authority on the safety of food ingredients, personal care products and dietary supplements. He has more than 20 years of experience dealing with regulatory issues related to product safety and risk assessment. Dr. Burdock has over 40 publications in scientific journals and has published two books, the previous edition of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients and the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. He is co-author of the chapter “Food Toxicology” in the current (fifth) edition of Casarett and Doull’s textbook Toxicology and is co-author of the next edition of Toxicology, published in July, 2001. He is also author of the chapter “Flavor Regulation” in the second edition of Nutritional Toxicology in the Target Organ Toxicology Series, also to be published in 2001. Dr. Burdock’s experience includes Director of Scientific Affairs for the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association and Manager of Product Safety for the Shulton Division of American Cyanamid. He is also experienced in laboratory studies, having been a study director and section manager at Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance). Dr. Burdock is a Diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology and is a member of the American Chemical Society, the Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, the Society of Toxicology (Associate Member), the American College of Toxicology and the Institute of Food Technologists.

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INTRODUCTION Definition of a Flavor As might be expected, the definition of a flavor will vary according to the source. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines flavoring agents and adjuvants as “substances added to impart or help impart a taste or aroma in food” (21 CFR §170.3(o)(12)). FDA identifies flavor enhancers as “substances added to supplement, enhance, or modify the original taste and/or aroma of a food, without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its own”1 (21 CFR § 170.3(o)(11)). To forestall the next question, what constitutes a natural flavor, is described in 21 CFR § 101.22(a)(3) as follows The term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose significant function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. Natural flavors include the natural essence or extractives obtained from plants listed in §§182.10, 182.20, 182.40, and 182.50 and part 184 of this chapter, and the substances listed in §172.510 of this chapter. This broad definition also embraces thermally processed flavors, smoke flavors and flavors such as “natural vanillin” which require naturally occurring precursors, such as ferulic acid to enzymatic/fermentive processes to make vanillin, that are, by this definition, natural. Artificial flavors are as described in 21 CFR §101.22 (a)(1): The term artificial flavor or artificial flavoring means any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof. Artificial flavor includes the substances listed in §§172.515(b) and 182.60 of this chapter except where these are derived from natural sources. This distinction between artificial and natural serves as a basis for labeling and because of market pressures, the term “natural” is preferred for the label over any description that might include the word “artificial.” Also, the term “artificial” is separate and distinct from the term “imitation” (See 21 CFR §101.3). The term nature identical was once used widely to designate that a substance, although present in nature, may also be produced synthetically. For example, natural benzaldehyde is produced from the pits of peaches, but this process has a rather low yield and 1 Flavor enhancers include such substances as monosodium glutamate (MSG) or inositol with no specific taste of

their own, but an ability to enhance other flavor ingredients. Also, substances commonly used as flavors or sweeteners (such as cinnamon or aspartame), but used at concentrations below their own threshold of perception, may also enhance the flavor of other ingredients.

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produces waste material (cyanide) for which disposal is costly. On the other hand, production of benzaldehyde from chemical feedstock is much more economical and is putatively the same as that produced from nature; it is therefore nature identical. The use of this term was an artifact of regulation where the approval process in some European countries was much easier for those substances with a natural counterpart. The term nature identical was never embraced by FDA and has largely been superseded by the term, chemically defined substance. The nature identical designation is still used by the International Organization of Flavour Industries (IOFI). The European Community (EC) Directive 88/3881 addresses “flavouring,” “flavouring substance” and even “flavouring preparation” which designates a flavoring resulting from a process, such as enzymatically developed flavors in cheese. In all, the directive extends over several pages and includes definitions, specifications and provisions for further action on items, including limits on production methods and non-flavor ingredients in flavors (including preservatives, solvents and processing aids). 1. This Directive shall apply to ‘flavourings’ used or intended for use in or on foodstuffs to impart odour and or taste, and to source materials used for the production of flavorings. 2. For the purposes of this Directive: (a) ‘flavouring’ means flavouring substances, flavouring preparations, process flavourings, smoke flavourings or mixtures thereof; (b) ‘flavouring substance’ means a defined chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained: (i) by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) or enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable or animal origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying, torrefaction and fermentation), (ii) by chemical synthesis or isolated by chemical processes and which is chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i), (iii) by chemical synthesis but which is not chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i); (c) ‘flavouring preparation’ means a product, other than the substances defined in (b)(i), whether concentrated or not, with flavouring properties, which is obtained by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction or by enzymatic extraction) or by enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable or animal origin, either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying torrefaction and fermentation); (d) ‘process flavouring’ means a product which is obtained according to good manufacturing practices by heating to a temperature not exceeding 180°C for a period not exceeding 15 minutes, a mixture 1 A Directive sets out minimum standards and when adopted by the member states may be made more stringent. A

Regulation is directly applicable to the member states without any need to transpose into national law.

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of ingredients, not necessarily themselves having flavouring properties, of which at least one contains nitrogen (amino) and another is a reducing sugar; (e) ‘smoke flavouring’ means a smoke extract used in traditional foodstuff smoking processes. 3. Flavourings may contain foodstuffs as well as other substances as described [elsewhere]. This directive is binding on member states, with the exception that if a member state determines that the regulation or regulated substance may constitute a danger to the health of the citizens or environment of the member state, it may suspend or restrict the use of that chemical within the borders of the member state. The Council of Europe (CoE) uses a fairly broad definition of flavor. A flavouring substance is a chemically-defined compound which has flavouring properties. It is obtained either by isolation from a natural source or by synthesis. Flavouring properties are those which are predominantly odour-producing and which may also affect the taste. Interestingly, the Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (JECFA) has no definition of what constitutes a flavor, artificial or natural. Non-regulatory organizations have slightly different views of the term “flavor.” The International Organization of Flavour Industries (located in Switzerland) indicates a flavor “concentrated preparation, with or without solvents or carriers, used to impart flavor, with the exception of only salty, sweet, or acid tastes. It is not intended to be consumed as such.” This definition brings up an interesting point not addressed by regulations, that is, a flavor is not intended to be consumed in and by itself. It is always incorporated in a delivery system (at the very least as a flavor in mineral water or as a sweetened flavor poured over shaved ice). The Society of Flavor Chemists describes a flavor to be “a substance that may be a single chemical entity or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular effect to any food or other product taken into the mouth.” As descriptive as various organizations or regulatory agencies might be in their definitions, none is so comprehensive as the following: “Flavor is the sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and also the general pain and tactile receptors in the mouth, as received and interpreted by the brain.”1 This definition reminds us that flavor can be experience as well as a sensation. Consider the pain, bite and heat associated with capsicum (red pepper), piperine (black pepper) and allylisothiocyanate (horseradish) as part of the “total experience” of eating food. This experience also forms associations needed for future discriminations, both negative and positive. For example, it is possible to make banana-flavored potato chips, but the crunchy texture would be incongruous with the taste. Conversely, we have long enjoyed pineappleflavored hard candy, which in reality tastes nothing like the fruit but has long been accepted as how a pineapple candy should taste.

1 Hall, R.L. (1968). Food flavors: benefits and problems. Food Technology 22:1388.

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Glossary Absolute: A material extracted from a plant that represents a concentrated form of that material and is extremely similar to the starting material in taste and odor. Usually, this term refers to the alcoholic extract of a “concrete” (see below). Absolutes are not widely used for compounding flavors. Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI): An estimate of the amount of a substance in food or drinking water expressed on a body weight basis that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable risk (assuming the average adult body weight to be 60 kg). The ADI is given in milligrams per kilogram body weight (mg/kg). Acidulants: Acidulants serve several purposes in modern food processing, in addition to their major role of rendering foods more palatable and stimulating to the consumer. In flavoring agents, acidulants may intensify certain tastes, blend unrelated taste characteristics or mask undesirable aftertastes. Acidulants affect only flavor, not aroma; therefore while citric acid may be an acidulant, acetic acid is not. ADI “not limited”: This term is no longer used by JECFA and has been supplanted with “ADI not specified.” ADI “not specified”: A term used by JECFA for a food ingredient of very low toxicity which, on the basis of the information supplied to JECFA, at historical levels of use and current levels of use conforming to good manufacturing practices, does not constitute a concern for safety. Antioxidant: An additive to retard oxidation; usually a sterically hindered phenol (see also auto-oxidation). Aroma: The odor or fragrance of a flavor. Aromatic (chemical) or Aroma chemical: Any chemical that has aroma or flavor properties. Not to be confused with the chemist's definition of a chemical containing a benzene ring structure. Artificial: Similar to imitation. It is possible to have a flavor that is all natural, but it must be called artificial because it has no counterpart in nature. See also the ingredients regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.3). Artificial flavor: Any substance whose function is to impart flavor to a food that is not native to that substance. See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.22). Auto-oxidation: A series of spontaneous and degradative reactions that take place in essential oils when they are exposed to air, light, heat or metallic ions. Balsam: Although most often associated with Peru Balsam, balsam is any plant (most often, tree) exudate, soluble in most organic solvents and alcohol, but insoluble in water. Baumé (Bé): A scale of specific gravities used in graduated hydrometers. The scale is used

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to express the sugar concentration of a syrup or other liquid. Most commercial corn syrups are customarily sold on a Baumé (Bé) basis, which is a measure of the dry-substance content and specific gravity. Baumé determination, however, has been largely superseded by direct determination of refractive index. High fructose corn syrups are sold on a dry substance basis without reference to Baumé. Blender: A material that when added to a substance appears to bring various flavor characteristics together. A blender may or may not introduce a flavor of its own. For example, vanilla can act as a blender. Bottom note: The characteristic left when top and middle notes disappear; the residue when a flavoring evaporates. Brix: A measure of soluble solids (sugars) obtained from the refractive index of a solution. Bulking: Mixing of one or more lots of the same flavorful material to produce a uniform product. The entire crop of an essential oil may be bulked to assure uniformity. Carrier: The diluent or solvent for a flavor; it may be liquid or solid, e.g., gum acacia is the carrier for spray-dried flavors, whereas alcohol and propylene glycol are the carriers for many liquid-based flavors. CAS No.: Chemical Abstracts Service Number. CDER: Center for Drug Evaluation and Review – FDA branch responsible for approval of drugs and excipients. Citrus flavors: Flavors made from the oils and juices of the citrus fruits, e.g., orange, lemon, lime, tangerine, grapefruit, mandarin and bergamont. Also, synthetic ingredients used to simulate these flavors. Clouding agent: A flavoring adjunct used to create a translucent or opaque appearance in citrus drinks. Cold pressing: A process for expressing citrus essential oils by pressure without the use of heat. A process for pressing or squeezing out the oil from the rind of the fruit. CoE: Council of Europe. Comminution: The process of grinding or breaking into small fragments. Compounds: Not to be confused with the chemist's definition (i.e., two elements chemically combined), but a flavoring mixture (flavor) composed of two or more substances. These substances can be natural or synthetic, a chemical or an essential oil, an extract or an oleoresin or combinations. Unlike chemical compounds, which are of known fixed compositions, flavor compounds are usually secret mixtures. Normally, they are finished flavorings that can be added directly to a product so that no additional flavorings are needed. Concentrated fruit juices: A fruit juice from which the water has been partially removed by

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some form of evaporation, such as distillation. It is usually concentrated to the strength of 5 to 6 times the single-fold juice. The essences are usually added back to the concentrate before use. Concentrated or folded citrus oils: Essential oils, such as lemon oil, in which part of the terpene fraction has been removed either by distillation or solvent extraction. The process produces essential oils of greater strength and character, with greater alcohol solubility. They also usually show better stability to oxidation. Concrete: A semisolid mixture containing the essential oil and fatty, waxy materials obtained after extracting the plant tissue, especially flowers, with various solvents. Consumption (annual): From the PAFA database, originating from the NAS survey of 1987 (NAS, 1989) and assumes only 60% of poundage was reported. Consumption (individual): A per capita estimate of intake (Maximum Survey-derived Daily Intake or MSDI) is based on “disappearance data” from periodic surveys conducted by the National Academy of Sciences under contract to FDA. The last survey was conducted in 1987 and was based on a voluntary reporting by manufacturers of the volume of ingredients produced during the survey year. The assumption is that there is a finite amount of substance available and it is ingested regardless of source at the retail level. The method is easy to use because it divides the total yearly poundage by the population in the survey year and the number of days per year. Some considerations are necessary in the use of the survey data: (1) because not all producers participate, it is generally held that the amount reported is a fraction of the actual volume; and (2) because not all persons eat all foods each day in each category in which the substance may be found and, conversely, some consumers may seek out the substance, distribution of consumption may be uneven. In order to compensate for these variables, FDA assumes (1) only 60% of the actual value was reported and (2) only 10% of the U.S. population (243.9 million in 1987) consumes 100% of the calculated amount (Clydesdale, 1997). Again, the assumption is made for a 60-kg individual. Council of Europe (CoE)1: A body of 41 European states, among which have signed the Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field. A Committee of Experts has been appointed by the signers to review the safety of substances added to food. The substances reviewed by CoE are designated as “chemically defined” and “natural flavouring” substances; there are subsets of each designation. CoE chemically defined categories: Chemically defined flavoring substances are divided into Category A (flavoring substances which may be used as foodstuffs (referred to as List 1 substances in previous designations) and Category B (flavoring substances for which further information is required before the Committee of Experts is able to offer a firm opinion on their safety-in-use (referred to as List II in previous designations). Category B substances may be used provisionally in foodstuffs. In general, Category A substances are those for which sufficient data were available, although a JECFA ADI may not have been established for all chemicals within the category. Where there is no ADI, the Committee of Experts has proposed practical upper levels to be used for beverages, foods and/or other food items. Category B contains substances for which the toxicological data were insufficient for a disposi1 For definitions of the Council of Europe designations (categories) and an explanation of the principles used, the

reader is urged to contact the Council of Europe at www.coe.int/soc-sp.

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tive opinion on safety-in-use. However, for extant data allowed for provisional acceptance, provided usage levels do not exceed levels designated and pending the submission of additional data, an ultimate opinion will be rendered. CoE natural flavoring categories: Category 1 – Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or products thereof, normally consumed as food items, herbs or spices in Europe for which it is considered that there should be no restrictions on use. Category 2 – Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or products thereof, and preparations derived therefrom, not normally consumed as food items, herbs or spices in Europe, but on the basis of information available, including consumption data, are not considered to constitute a risk to the consumer. Category 3 – Plants, etc., normally consumed in Europe which contain defined “active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels. Category 4 – Plants, etc., not normally consumed in Europe which contain defined “active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels. Category 5 – Plants, etc., for which additional toxicological and/or chemical information is required. These could be temporarily acceptable provided limits for the which contain “active principles” or “other chemical components” were not exceeded. Category 6 – Plants, etc., which are considered unfit for human consumption in any amount. Decoction: A solution made by boiling the material to be extracted with a solvent, usually followed by filtration; for example, the preparation of tea. Distillate: A clear, flavorful liquid produced from fruits, herbs, roots, etc. by distillation. Also the condensed product separated by distillation. Distillation: The separation of a more volatile part of a substance from those less volatile by vaporizing and subsequent condensation. Two types are generally used: steam and fractional distillation. Distilled oil: The oil separated from a botanical material by distillation methods. Dry solubles: Natural spice oils and/or oleoresins extended on a soluble, dry, edible carrier. EEC: European Economic Community = European Union. EINECS: European Inventory of New and Existing Chemical Substances. Emulsion: A system containing two immiscible liquids in which one is dispersed as very small droplets or globules throughout the other. Encapsulation: A process by which a particle is coated with a partially impermeable layer to retard evaporation and/or chemical reaction. Basically, the material to be protected is wrapped in a wall of impervious material which serves to lock-in or entrap the volatile substances. Enhancer: An ingredient that is added to supplement, enhance or modify the original taste and/or aroma of a food without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its own (examples include maltol, ethyl maltol, monosodium glutamate).

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EOA: Essential Oil Association. Essence: Concentrated fragrance or flavorant. In some countries, essence is used to designate volatile oils, but in the U.S., this term is commonly applied to alcoholic solutions of volatile oils. Essential oil: An oily substance obtained from plant material through various methods. The essential oil normally has the characteristic taste and odor of the plant from which it was derived. An essential oil is still called a volatile oil as differentiated from a fixed oil. The hydraulically pressed sesame seed yields a fixed oil (sesame oil) that has low odor and is not volatile. The anise seed, upon distillation, yields odorous and volatile oil — oil of anise. Essential oils may have received their name because at one time they were thought to be essential to the life processes of the plant or that they were the essence of the plant. Excipient: Any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc. In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well. In drugs, the only active ingredient(s) are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect. No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient. Expression: A process using pressure to obtain an essential oil, usually out of the rind of citrus fruits without the use of heat. Extended flavor: Dispersion of a flavor on a dry carrier. They may be liquids (flavors, spice oils or oleoresins) or solids (vanillin or heliotropine) and can be natural or artificial. The dry carrier is usually an anhydrous material, such as dextrose. These flavors are also referred to as plated flavors (see also Dry Solubles). Extract: A solution obtained by passing alcohol, or an alcohol-water mixture, through a substance. An example would be vanilla extract. Extracts found on the grocer’s shelf, such as orange, almond, lemon, etc., are essential oils dissolved in an alcohol-water mixture. FEMA: Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association – one of several groups conferring GRAS status. FFPA: Free From Prussic Acid – used to describe HCN-free bitter almond oil. Fixative: Usually applied to perfume, but in flavoring, acts to reduce the overall volatility of the flavoring. Fixed oil: Generally, this refers to a non-volatile oil, obtained by hydraulic pressing or solvent extraction, with little or no odor. Example, sesame oil. Fold: Indicates the degree of concentration of an extract or oil. For example, a fourfold oil indicates a concentration of 8 to 2 kg. Food: “Food includes human food, substances migrating to food and from food contact articles, pet food, and animal feed” (See 21 CFR §170.3).

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Food additive: This indicates any substance approved for addition to food by FDA on the basis of a food additive petition. Food additives are but one category of the all-inclusive designation, food ingredients. Other categories of food ingredients include, but are not limited to, GRAS substances, prior-sanctioned substances, color additives (both certified and noncertified). Although each category is distinct under FDA regulations, some substances are members of more than a single category. For example, a substance can be both a food additive and a GRAS substance at the same time. Food standard: A method or process and/or list of ingredients which may be used in a food which FDA has defined through regulation such as mayonnaise, macaroni, farina, French dressing, milk chocolate, etc. Food standards were developed, in part, to thwart unscrupulous manufacturers from marketing products that did not conform to the usual and common understanding of the nature of a particular product. GRAS: The acronym for Generally Recognized As Safe indicates any substance (and its intended use) which has been granted GRAS status by experts (either in or outside FDA). (See 21 CFR §170.30.) GRAS affirmed: A substance whose GRAS status has been designated by one party is affirmed GRAS by FDA. Herbs of Commerce (HOC): 21 CFR §101.4(h) — part of the labeling regulation requires: “The common or usual name of ingredients of dietary supplements that are botanicals (including fungi and algae) shall be consistent with the names standardized in Herbs of Commerce, 1992 edition, which is incorporated by reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51.” This designation in Fenaroli’s indicates this substance is recognized in Herbs of Commerce. Imitation: Flavor containing all or some portion of non-natural materials. For example, unless an orange flavoring is made entirely from orange, it is imitation. Specific provisions for the use of the word “imitation” are described in 21 CFR §101.3. Inactive ingredient: An excipient. Any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc. In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well. In drugs, the only active ingredient(s) are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect. No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient. Indirect food additive: A substance that is not directly added to food, but whose use in the proximity of food may allow for migration of the substance into food, e.g., a component of a food wrapper. Infusion: Prepared by refluxing a solvent over raw materials (usually alcohol), often using heat over a prolonged period of time. This is an archaic methodology, no longer employed. IOFI: International Organization of Flavour Industries. Isolate: A chemical or fraction obtained from a natural substance. For example, citral can be isolated from lemon oil or lemon-grass.

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JECFA: Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives. LGMP (Limited by Good Manufacturing Practice): A food ingredient whose use in food is self-limiting for technological, organoleptic or other reasons. Many flavor ingredients are self-limiting and over-use would make food impalatable. Maceration: To steep or soak in a solvent for the purpose of extraction. Maillard reaction: Flavor production by non-enzymatic browning of food. Proceeds mainly from reactions of reducing sugars with amines, peptides and proteins. Masking agent: An ingredient capable of covering or at last making more acceptable an unpleasant odor or taste in a food or pharmaceutical. Menstrum: The medium in which a substances is dissolved – a solvent. Middle note or Main note: The substance of a flavor; the main characteristic. Modifier: An ingredient which influences, but does not change materially, the flavor and odor characteristics of a flavor. MRL (Maximum Residue Limit): A term used by JECFA to indicate the maximum concentration of residue resulting from the use of a veterinary drug that is acceptable in or on a food. MTDI (Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake): See PMTDI. NAS (National Academy of Sciences): In this context, the NAS number is the identification number provided by NAS for the purposes of the surveys for food ingredients. Nature Identical: A naturally occurring substance produced by synthetic means. Note: A distinct flavor or odor characteristic. For example, many raspberry flavors have a seedy note. Oleoresin: A resinous-viscous product obtained when a substance is extracted with a nonaqueous solvent such as a hydrocarbon. The solvent is later removed. Spices, as a class, form most of the oleoresin the flavorist encounters; an example would be pepper oleoresin. Possible Average Daily Intake (PADI): The FEMA PADI (Possible Average Daily Intake) is similar to the TAMDI concept, using maximum use level values, but only mean consumption values (based on Market Research Corporation of America mean frequency of eating and USDA mean portion size of 34 general food categories). Therefore, the FEMA PADI (in mg/ person/day) is the mean consumption of foods containing the maximum amount. The conservatism of the PADI method assumes that the maximum amount of substance is added to the entire food category, not just the substance within that category. For example, the consumption of a substance added only to marshmallow cream cookies (a relatively rarely eaten food) would account for very little consumption, but the FEMA assumption is the substance added to all baked goods, not just the small portion of baked goods represented by an exotic cookie.

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PMTDI (Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake): A term used by JECFA to indicate the endpoint used for contaminants with no cumulative properties. Its value represents permissible human exposure as a result of the natural occurrence of the substance in food and in drinking water. Prior-sanctioned food ingredient: A substance approved for the addition to food by FDA or USDA prior to September 6, 1958 and whose approval remains in place. FDA prior-sanctioned substances include several food packaging materials and single or multiple food contact materials. The USDA prior-sanctioned substances are sodium and potassium nitrate and nitrite for use in meat and poultry products. PTWI (Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake): The endpoint used for food contaminants such as heavy metals with cumulative properties. The value of the PTWI represents permissible human weekly exposure to those contaminants unavoidably associated with the consumption of otherwise wholesome foods. REGS (Recognized Experts on GRAS Status): A group of internationally recognized scientists involved in safety and risk assessment of food and flavor ingredients and dietary supplements. This expert panel is active in conferring GRAS status on acceptable substances and reviewing safety of dietary ingredients. R-E-G-S.com Reported uses: As given in the text of this book, reported uses are those amounts (both usual and maximum) in specific categories of food. Unless otherwise noted, the reported uses are those designated by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association (FEMA) from the list of 34 food categories adopted by FEMA. FDA recognizes 43 general categories of food (21 CFR §170.3(n)) as originally established in Exhibit 33B of the report of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council report, “A comprehensive Survey of Industry on the Use of Food Chemicals Generally Recognized as Safe” (September 1972). Secondary food additive: Usually designates a substance used in the manufacture of food and, although may be present in the final product, has no functionality in the final food. Examples include enzymes for processing cheese, solvents, lubricants or release agents (a release agent allows a piece of candy to exit the mold without damage). Single-fold oil: The oil as it is produced from the plant (distillation or expression), without concentration. Solid extract: A water-soluble concentrated extractant resulting from the extraction of plant matter using water-compatible solvents. Were the concentrated product oil soluble, it would be an oleoresin. Fluid extracts are water or alcohol reconstitutions of solid extracts. Specialty: Usually similar to a compound, only not finished. A specialty, although not complete, carries the major part of the flavor load, so that only a few other substances are needed to complete the flavoring. Synthetic: Produced by chemical means, but not to be confused with the term artificial.

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Terpeneless oil: Because terpenes contribute to the instability of an essential oil, removal of some may provide stability. However, removal of all terpenes may severely undermine the flavor. There is no standard of what constitutes a “terpeneless oil.” Theoretical Added Maximum Daily Intake (TAMDI): The TAMDI is calculated on the basis of upper use levels and the estimated daily intakes of foods. For example, the more recent FEMA GRAS lists indicate two levels of use, the “average usual” and “average maximum.” The TAMDI would be determined using the “average maximum” level times the estimated daily intake of the food to which the substance is added. The estimated daily level would presumably be maximized as well, using the 90th or 95th percentile consumption. Tincture: An alcoholic extract of a botanical material, without further processing. Although originally an apothecary’s term, in the flavor industry, it refers to an alcoholic extract of a botanical in which the aroma is preserved. Top note: The first note normally perceived when a flavor is smelled or tasted. Usually a top note is relatively volatile and suggests identity. Type or Class: The flavorist tends to group similar flavors together. For example: red flavors (flavorings): strawberry, cherry, raspberry; citrus flavors: lemon, orange, lime, grapefruit, bergamot; brown flavors: coffee, malt, caramel; spice flavors: cassia, clove, nutmeg. Classes can also be made by volatility, chemical function or end use. WONF: With Other Natural Flavors. Essentially, this indicates the addition of juices in addition to those indicated as the characterizing flavor as identified on the label of the container. Please consult 21 CFR §102 for labeling regulations of this type of product.

©2002 CRC Press LLC

BRIEF EXPLANATION OF A SYNTHETIC FLAVOR

Preferred name (usually the most commonly used FDA name)

ACETAL

Identification numbers. See Glossary for description of each

Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal

Names appearing in bold are the most common synonyms

Describes the organoleptic characteristics and other relevant information

CAS No.: CoE No.:

105-57-7 35

EEC No.: EINECS No.:

35 203-310-6

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2002 NAS No.: n/a

2002

Description: A colorless liquid with a pungent, green, woody solvent pleasant odor and whisky or nutty taste. Consumption: Annual: 1000.00 lb Individual: 0.0008474 mg/kg/day Regulatory Status: CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm FDA: 21 CFR 172.515 FDA (other): n/a JECFA: n/a Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 11.580 mg IOFI: Nature Identical Empirical Formula/MW:

United States and European regulatory agencies. See Glossary for description of each term

Chemical formula, molecular weight (grams/mole) and chemical structure

See Glossary for detailed explanation FCC specifications where available, otherwise JECFA or presumed article of commerce

C6H1402/118.18

FEMA Possible Average Daily Intake (PADI), IOFI designation (Natural, Nature Identical or Artificial

Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000) Appearance

Colorless to pale-yellow liquid

Solubility

Soluble in alcohol

Assay

97.0% of C6H1402

Specific gravity

0.821-0.827 at 25°C

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994)

FEMA GRAS approved uses only (in ppm). There may be other (unpublished) use levels

Brief description of industrial processes

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Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Chewing gum

Usual 5.00 65.20 154.70

Max. 13.33 89.70 154.70

Food Category Gelatin, pudding Hard candy Nonalcoholic beverages

Usual 36.39 4.20 5.41

Max. 66.78 4.20 10.55

Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anhydrous calcium chloride. Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also detected and quantitatively assessed in rums.

Representative values from the literature

Representative values in distilled water unless otherwise designated

Reported in the literature for substances designated by IOFI as “Nature Identical”

BRIEF EXPLANATION OF A NATURAL FLAVOR

Preferred name (usually the most commonly used FDA name)

Genus and species name

Identification numbers. See Glossary for description of each

Describes the plant (and plant parts) from which the flavoring is derived

FEMA Possible Average Daily Intake (PADI), IOFI designation (Natural, Nature Identical or Artificial

Included for those plants from which flavoring substances are derived

Representative values from the literature

©2002 CRC Press LLC

ACACIA GUM Botanical name: Acacia sengal (L.) willd Botanical family: Leguminosae Other names: Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum CAS No.: CoE No.:

9000-01-05 EEC No.: n/a EINECS No.:

8 232-519-5

See Glossary for detailed explanation FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2001 NAS No.: n/a

2001

Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal (L.) willd or of related species of Acacia. Injured trees exude Gum Arabic; heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production. Consumption: Annual: 12,000,000 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day Regulatory Status: CoE: n/a FDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 184.1330, 582.7330, 27 CFR 24.246, 240.1051 FDA (other): Approved as an excipient (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992) JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989) Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Naturall Specifications: (FCC, 1996) Appearance

White or yellowish-white spheroidal tears

Insoluble matter Not more than 1%

Arsenic (as AS)

Not more than 3 mg/kg

Solubility

One gram dissolves in 2 ml water

Physical-chemical characteristics: The oil is a mobile pale-yellow liquid exhibiting a peculiar odor and an extremely bitter flavor. Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Breakfast cereals

Usual 0.59 0.78 0.07

Max. 1.53 3.84 0.18

Food Category Imitation dairy Instant coffee/tea Meat products

Usual 9.56 0.13 0.99

Max. 12.50 0.80 3.37

Composition: Four acetophenone glycosides were isolated from the butanol-soluble fraction. Aroma threshold values: n/a Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: spicy sweet, fruity and honey with a woody herbal nuance.

United States and European regulatory agencies. See Glossary for description of each term

FCC specifications where available, otherwise JECFA or presumed article of commerce

FEMA GRAS approved uses only (in ppm). There may be other (unpublished) use levels

Representative values from the literature

Reported in the literature for substances designated by IOFI as “Nature Identical”

ACACIA GUM Botanical name: Acacia sengal (L.) willd Botanical family: Leguminosae Other names: Acacia sengal gum; Arabic gum; gum Arabic; Acacia delbata gum; Acacia solution; Acacia syrup; Australian gum; Gum Arabic; Indian gum; Wattle gum CAS No.: CoE No.:

9000-01-05 n/a

EEC No.: EINECS No.:

8 FEMA No.: 232-519-5 JECFA No.:

2001 n/a

NAS No.:

2001

Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia Senegal (L.) willd or of related species of Acacia. Injured trees exude gum Arabic; heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production. Most of the gum Arabic production is from wild trees, but some from privately owned and cultivated gardens are tapped and collected on a systematic basis. The gum called Hashab geneina (garden gum) is the cleanest and lightest grade and is most preferred for the U.S. Market. The wild gum (called Hashab wady) is collected on a part-time basis in the dry season, from October to May or June, by natives whose main occupation is usually farming. After gathering, it is taken to central collecting stations where it is auctioned under government supervision, graded by hand and dried before exporting to gum suppliers in all parts of the world. Then it is resorted, ground, processed and graded to various specifications. Clear, white (sun-bleached) spheroidal tears, up to 32 mm in diameter, also occur as flakes. Chemically, gum Arabic is a neutral or slightly acid salt of a complex polysaccharide containing calcium, magnesium, and potassium cations. Its most distinguishing property among the natural gums is its extreme solubility in water. Solutions of over 50% concentration may be prepared. Gum Arabic is best described as “heteropolymolecular,” i.e., a polymer system having either a variation in monomer (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid and 4-O-methylgucuronic acid) composition and/or variation in the mode of linking and branching of the monomer units, in addition to a distribution in molecular weight. Major uses of gum Arabic in foods are as a fixative for flavors, a foam stabilizer in beverages, an adhesive for icings and toppings, and an emulsifier and stabilizer in confectionery and ice cream. It is also widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, paper, textile, paint, ink and lithography industries. Consumption:Annual: 12,000,000.00 lb Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day Regulatory Status: CoE: n/a FDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 184.1330, 582.7330; 27 CFR 24.246; 240.1051 FDA (other): Listed in Inactive Ingredient Guide (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992) JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989) Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg IOFI: Natural Specifications: (FCC, 1996) Appearance

Arsenic (as As)

White or yellowish white spheroidal tears

Not more than 3 mg/kg

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Heavy metals (as Pb) Not more than 0.002%

Identification

To 10 ml of a cold 1-in-50 solution of acacia, add 0.2 ml diluted lead sub-acetate TS; a flocculent, or curdy, white precipitate is formed immediately (Part 1 of 2)

Specifications: (FCC, 1996) (Continued) Ash (acid-insoluNot more than 0.5% ble)

Insoluble matter

Ash (total)

Solubility

Not more than 4%

Not more than 1% One gram dissolves in 2 ml water (Part 2 of 2)

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Breakfast cereals Chewing gum Condiment, relish Confection, frosting Fats, oils Frozen dairy Fruit juice Fruit ices Gelatin, pudding Hard candy

Usual 0.59 0.78 0.07 27.83 0.09 12.72 4.34 0.24 0.36 5.00 0.61 276.50

Max. 1.53 3.84 0.18 28.04 0.11 14.86 12.61 0.32 0.56 9.99 5.28 284.70

Food Category Imitation dairy Instant coffee, tea Meat products Milk products Nonalcoholic beverages Nut products Other grains Snack food Soft candy Soups Sugar substitutes

Usual Max. 9.56 12.50 0.13 0.80 0.99 3.37 0.04 0.04 0.36 0.66 6.38 7.28 10.00 10.00 5.72 28.57 269.20 452.10 0.04 0.04 10.00 10.00

Aroma threshold values: n/a Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: Spicy sweet, fruity and honey with a woody, herbal nuance.

ACETAL Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal; Acetaldehyde ethyl acetal; Acetol; Diethylacetal; Dithane, 1,1-diethoxy-; Ethylidene diethyl ether; Ethylidenediethyl ether; 1,1-Diethoxyethane CAS No.: CoE No.:

105-57-7 35

EEC No.: EINECS No.:

35 203-310-6

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2002 n/a

NAS No.:

2002

Description: A colorless liquid with a pungent, green, woody solvent pleasant odor and whisky or nutty taste. As a flavor ingredient, it is used in fruit, rum and whisky. Acetal tends to polymerize on standing. Consumption:Annual: 1000.00 lb Individual: 0.0008474 mg/kg/day Regulatory Status: CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm FDA: 21 CFR 172.515 FDA (other): n/a JECFA: n/a Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 11.580 mg IOFI: Nature Identical Empirical Formula/MW: C6H1402/118.18 Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000) Appearance

Colorless to pale-yellow liquid

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Refractive index

1.379-1.384 at 20°C (Part 1 of 2)

Specifications: (FCC, 1996 and proposed 2000) (Continued) Assay

97.0% of C6H1402

Solubility

Boiling point 102°C

Specific gravity

Soluble in alcohol (1 ml in 1 ml 95% ethanol) propylene glycol and vegetable oils; slightly soluble in water 0.821-0.827 at 25°C (Part 2 of 2)

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Chewing gum Fats, oils Frozen dairy

Usual 5.00 65.20 154.70 1.80 35.66

Max. 13.33 89.70 154.70 2.50 72.70

Food Category Gelatin, pudding Hard candy Nonalcoholic beverages Soft candy

Usual 36.39 4.20 5.41 32.69

Max. 66.78 4.20 10.55 55.93

Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anhydrous calcium chloride or small amounts of mineral acids (HCl). Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also detected and quantitatively assessed in rums. Found in apple juice, orange juice, orange peel oil, bitter orange juice, strawberry fruit, raw radish, Chinese quince fruit, Chinese quince flesh, udo (Aralia cordata Thunb).

ACETALDEHYDE Synonyms: Ethanal; Acetic aldehyde; Acetylaldehyde; Ethyl aldehyde CAS No.: CoE No.:

75-07-0 89

EEC No.: EINECS No.:

89 200-836-8

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2003 80

NAS No.:

2003

Description: Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid with a characteristic pungent, penetrating, ethereal odor. As a flavor ingredient/enhancer, as for example in orange juice, acetaldehyde helps create naturalness, fruitiness and juiciness. Consumption:Annual: 186,666.6 lb Individual: 0.1581 mg/kg/day Regulatory Status: CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm FDA: 21 CFR 172.515, 182.60, 582.60 FDA (other): n/a JECFA: ADI: Acceptable (no safety concern at current level of intake) (1997) Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 35.261 mg IOFI: Nature Identical Empirical Formula/MW: C2H4O/44.05 Specifications: (FCC, 1996) Appearance Acid value

Colorless, liquid 5.0

Boiling point Residue on evaporation

Assay, minimum

99.0%

Solubility

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21°C 0.0006% Miscible in water, alcohol and organic solvents

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Cheese Chewing gum Condiment, relish Confection, frosting Fats, oils Frozen dairy Fruit ices Gelatin, pudding Gravies

Usual Max. 470.00 470.00 30.00 280.00 0.0005 600.00 0.78 9.20 0.50 5.00 83.00 2000.00 0.10 4.00 94.00 150.00 50.00 100.00 8.10 100.00 0.61 53.00

Food Category Hard candy Imitation dairy Jams, jellies Meat products Milk products Nonalcoholic beverages Reconstituted vegetables Snack foods Soft candy Sweet sauce

Usual Max. 9.29 21.49 0.20 0.70 23.00 50.00 1.67 5.53 76.00 76.00 38.00 190.00 0.0085 0.02 0.25 10.00 3.00 1000.00 13.00 230.00

Synthesis: The method of synthesis is dependent on the price of feedstock and may be produced by a number of methods. (1) By oxidation of ethyl alcohol with potassium dichromate or manganese dioxide in the presence of sulfuric acid. (2) By addition of water to acetylene. (3) Forming during the natural alcoholic fermentation process; recovery is effected by suitable fractionation, subsequent preparation of the acetaldehyde ammonia and final treatment of the addition compound with diluted sulfuric acid. Aroma threshold values: Detection: 0.7 to 200 ppb; Recognition: 27 to 380 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a Natural occurrence: Reported found in oak and tobacco leaves; in the fruital aromas of: pear, apple, raspberry, strawberry and pineapple; in the distillation waters of Monarda punctata, orris, cumin, chenopodium; in the essential oils of: Litsea cubeba, Magnolia grandijlora, Artemisia brevifolia, rosemary, balm, clary sage, Mentha arvensis, daffodil, bitter orange, camphor, angelica, fennel, mustard, Scotch blended whiskey, Japanese whiskey, rose wine, blackberry brandy and rum.

ACETALDEHYDE, BUTYL PHENETHYL ACETAL Synonyms: 2-Butoxy-2-phenylethoxy-ethane Acetal R; Pepital; 1-Phenethoxy-1-propoxyethane; Propyl phenethyl acetal; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy)ethyl benzene; Benzene, 2-(1-butoxy ethoxy)ethyl-; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy)ethyl benzene CAS No.: CoE No.:

64577-91-9 EEC No.: n/a EINECS No.:

n/a 264-948-9

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

3125 n/a

NAS No.:

3125

Description: A liquid with a green vegetable odor and a green paper taste. Used in vegetable and fruit flavors. Consumption:Annual: α@ƒ'%HWZHHQR DQGRFDOFXODWHGRQ WKHGULHGEDVLV 3DUWRI

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